current affairs: Medieval India

MAHMUD OF GHAZNI

Until the rise of the west, India was possibly the richest country in the world. Such a country presented an irresistible target for the ravening Mongols and their descendents who settled in present day Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan, all within comparatively easy reach of north-western India.
The northwest was, at this time, a mish-mash of warring kingdoms, more interested in settling scores with their neighbours than in unifying against the Mongols. It is then unsurprising that Mahmud Ghaznavi's armies so handily defeated those of the Indian kings.
Born in 971 AD, Mahmud Ghaznavi was the eldest son of Subuktagin, the king of Ghazni (in present day Afghanistan). When Subuktagin attacked King Jaipala of Punjab, Mahmud fought for his father in the battlefield. Though Mahmud was the eldest son of his father, it is said that in his last days, Subuktagin was not happy with

SOMNATH TEMPLE

The Somnath Temple located in the Kathiarwar region of Gujarat, is one of the twelve Jyotirlings (golden lingas) symbols of the God Shiva. It is mentioned in the Rig Veda. Somnath means "The Protector of Moon God". It is known as 'the Shrine Eternal', as although the temple has been destroyed six times it has been rebuilt every single time. The first temple of Somnath is said to have existed before the beginning of the Christian era. The second temple, built by the Maitraka kings of Vallabhi in Gujarat, replaced the first one on the same site around 649 AD. In 725 Junayad. The Arab governor of Sind, sent his armies to destroy the second temple. The Pratihara king Nagabhata II constructed the third temple in 815 AD. A large structure of red sandstone. Mahmud of Ghazni attacked this temple in 1025 AD, and looted it of gems and precious stones. He then massacred the worshippers and had the temple burnt. It was then that the famous Shiva lingam of the temple was entirely destroyed. The temple and citadel were sacked, and most of its defenders massacred: Mahmud personally hammered the temple's gilded lingam to pieces and the stone fragments were carted back to Ghazni, where they were incorporated into the steps of the city's new Jamiah Masjid.

The fourth temple was built by the Paramara King Bhoj of Malwa and the Solarim king Bhima of Gujarat between 1026 AD and 1042 AD. The wooden structure was replaced by Kumarpal who built the temple of stone. The temple was razed in 1297 when the Sultanate of Delhi conquered Gujarat, and again in 1394 AD. The Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb destroyed the temple again in 1706 AD.

The present temple is the seventh temple built on the original site. It was completed on December 1, 1995 and the then President of India, Dr. Shankar Dayal Sharma dedicated it in the service of the nation. The present temple was built by the Shree Somnath Trust which looks after the entire complex of Shree Somnath and its environs.

Mahmud. So, when Subuktagin died in 997 AD, his younger son Ismail became the king of Ghazni. Ismail reigned only for a little time. Very soon, Mahmud defeated him and became the king.

Mahmud began a series of seventeen raids into northwestern India at the end of the 10th century. Nonetheless, he did not attempt to rule Indian territory except for Punjab, which was his gateway to India.
His first expedition was directed against the frontier towns in 1000 AD.
His second expedition was against Jaipala, the Hindushahi king of Punjab whom he defeated in the First Battle of Waihind. Jaipala could not survive the shock of humiliation and he burnt himself to death. He was succeeded by his son, Anandpala in1002 AD.
In his sixth expedition, Mahmud defeated Anandpala in the the Battle of Waihind (1008). Anandpala had organized a confederacy of rulers of Ujjain, Gwalior, Kalinjar, Kannauj, Delhi and Ajmer, but the alliance was defeated.
In his other expeditions, Mahmud plundered Nagarkot, Thaneshwar, Kannauj, Mathura and Somnath.
His sixteenth expedition was the plunder of Somnath temple (dedicated to Shiva) in 1025AD, situated on the sea coast of Kathiarwar.
After looting the Somnath temple, when Mahmud was going back to Ghazni, the Jats had attacked his army. So, to punish the Jats, he returned and defeated them in 1026.
The objective of Mahmud's expeditions was to plunder the riches of temples and palaces and was not interested _in expanding his empire to India. However, he later annexed Punjab and made it a part of his kingdom, just to have easy access.
He patronized 3 persons

a) Firdausi (Persian poet, known as Homer of the east) who wrote Shahnama.

b) Alberuni (a brilliant scholar from Central Asia) who wrote Tahqiq-1-Hind

c) Utbi (court historian), who wrote Kitab-ud-Yamni.

MUHAMMAD GHORI

The real founder of the Muslim Empire in India was Shihab-ud-Din Muhammad Ghori or Muhammad of Ghur. It is true that Muhammad bin Qasim was the first Muslim invader of India but he failed to carve out a Muslim empire in India on account of his premature death. Mahmud also failed to set a Muslim empire in India and the only permanent effect of his invasions was the annexation of Punjab. It was left to Muhammad Ghori to build up a Muslim Empire in India on a secure footing.
He was also a ruler of a small kingdom in Afghanistan. But he was interested in conquering northern India and adding it to his kingdom, and not merely in getting gold and jewellery like Mahmud.
His first invasion was directed against Multan in 1175 AD, which was successful. By 1182, Sindh was also captured. Punjab was captured by 1186 AD.
Prithviraj Chauhan, who was the king of Delhi at that time, received contingents from other Rajput kings and defeated him in the First Battle of Thrain (1191).
But he defeated Prithviraj in the Second Battle of Terrain in 1192.
Captured Delhi and Ajmer and thus laid the foundation of Muslim Rule in India.
Also defeated Jaichandra (Gahadval Rajput, ruler of Kannauj) at the Battle of Chhandwar in 1194 AD.
Ikhtiyar-ud-din Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji, one of Ghori's commanders, annexed Bihar and Bengal and destroyed Nalanda and Vikramshila University.
Died in 1206 AD, leaving Qutab-ud-Din Aibak the charge.

PRITHVIRAJ CHAUHAN

Prithviraj III (1179-1192), also called Rai Pithaura by Muslim historians was a king of the Rajput Chauhan (Chahamana) dynasty, who ruled a kingdom in northern India during the latter half of the 12th century. He was born to king Someshwara Chauhan and hiswife Karpuravalli. He succeeded to the throne while still a minor, and ruled from the twin capitals of Ajmer and Delhi. His elopement with Samyukta, the daughter of Jai Chandra, the Gahadvala king of Kannauj, is a popular romantic tale, and is one of the subjects of the Prithviraj Raso, an epic poem composed by Prithviraj's court poet, Chand Bardal. His kingdom included much of the present-day Indian states of Rajasthan and Haryana, and parts of Uttar Pradesh and Punjab. In Prithviraj Raso, Chand Bardai depicts Prithviraj as a romantic, chivalrous and an extremely fearless king. His fast rise aroused the envy of the then powerful ^ruler of

Kannauj, Jaichand Gahadwala, and caused ill-feeling between the two. Samyogita also known as Samyukta in folklore, daughter of Jaichand, fell secretly in love with Nthviraj and began a secret correspondence with him. Her father got wind of this and resolved to have her safely wed at an early date. He arranged a Swayamwara, a ceremony where a maiden date. He arranged a Swayamwara, a ceremony where a maiden selects her husband from a number of suitors who assemble at the invitation of her guardian. Jaichand invited many princes of acceptable rank and heritage, but deliberately failed to invite Prithviraj. To add insult to injury, Jaichand had a statue of Prithviraj made and placed at the door of the venue, thus parodying Prithviraj as a doorman. Prithviraj came to hear of this. He made his plans and confided the same to his lover, Samyukta.

On the day of the ceremony, Samyukta emerged from an inner chamber, entered the venue of the swayamwara, walked straight down the hall past the assembled suitors, bypassing them all. She reached the door and garlanded the statue of Prithviraj. The assemblage was stunned at this brash act, but more was to follow: Prithviraj, who had been hiding behind the statue in the garb of a doorman, emerged, put Samyukta upon his steed, and made a fast getaway. Jaichandra and his army gave earnest chase to no avail. This incident resulted in a string of battles between the two kingdoms and both of them suffered heavily. The Chauhan-Gahadvala feud led to the weakening of both Rajput kingdoms.

After the Second Battle of Tarain, Prithviraj was taken as a prisoner in Ghor and was brought in chains before Mahmud. He haughtily looked Ghori straight into the eye. Ghori ordered him to lower his whereupon a defiant Prithviraj declared that the eyelids of a Rajput are lowered only in death- On hearing this, Ghori flew into a rage and ordered that Prithviraj's eyes be burnt with red hot iron rods. This heinous deed was committed. The blind Prithviraj was then regularly brought to the presence of the barbaric warlord lobe taunted by Ghori and his courtiers.

Chand Bardai came to Ghor to be near Prithviraj in his misery. Chand Bardai came in disguise and secured himself a place in Mahmud's court by purveying his skills as a composer of poems. The two got the revenge opportunity when Ghori announced an archery competition. Chand Bardai told Ghori that Prithviraj was so skilled an archer, that he could take aim based only on sound, and did not even need to look at his target. The blind and hapless Prithviraj was brought out to the field and given a bow and arrows. In the spirit of the occasion, Mahmud Ghori personally gave Prithviraj the order to shoot. Thus, Chand Bardai provided Prithviraj with an aural indication of where Ghori was seated. He gave Prithviraj one further indication of the same by composing a couplet on the spot and reciting the same in Prithviraj's hearing. The couplet, composed in a language understood only by Prithviraj went thus:

Char bans, chaubts goj, angel ashto proman,

Etc pat hat Sultan, (Too Upor hat Sultan),

ab mat chuko hey Chauhan.

(Ten measures ahead of you and twenty/our feet away, is seated the Sultan. Do not miss him now, Chauhan).

Ghori then ordered Prithviraj to shoot. Prithviraj turned in the direction from where he heard Ghori speak and, taking aim based only on the voice and on Chand Bardai s couplet, he sent an arrow racing to Ghori's throat Ghori was thus stuck dead by Prithviraj.

Naturally, after this deed, Prithviraj was killed by Mahmud's courtiers. But the brave Rajput had avenged the betrayals and humiliations suffered by him. Selects her husband from a number of suitors who assemble at the invitation of her guardian. Jaichand invited many princes of acceptable rank and heritage, but deliberately failed to invite Prithviraj. To add insult to injury, Jaichand had a statue of Prithviraj made and placed at the door of the venue, thus parodying Prithviraj as a doorman. Prithviraj came to hear of this. He made hisplans and confided the same to his lover, Samyukta.

THE ILBARI DYNASTY OR SLAVE SYNASTY

Out of all the kings belon ing to the so-called Slave Dynasty, only three, viz., Qutab-ud-din Aibak, Iltutmish and Balban were slaves and even they were manumitted by their masters.
The dynasty is called Ilbari dynasty because all rulers of this dynasty, except Aibak, belonged to the Ilbari tribe of Turks.

QUTAB-UD-DIN AIBAK (1206-1210)

Md. Ghori left his Indian possessions in his hands. He ruled on the death of his master and founded this dynasty.
Lahore and later Delhi were his capitals.
Famous for his generosity and earned the sobriquet of lakh-baksh (giver of Lakhs).
Laid the foundation of Qutab Minar after the name of famous Sufi saint, Khwaja
Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki.
Died of a horse fall at Lahore, while playing Changan (polo). The Turks only introduced polo in India.
Built the first mosque in India – Quwwat-ul-Islam (at Delhi) and Adhai Din Ka Jhonpara (at Ajmer).
He was a great patron of learning and patronized writers like Hasan Nizami, who wrote
Taj-td-Massir, and Fakhr-ud-din, writer of Tarikh-i-Mubarakshahi.

ARAM SHAH (1210)

When Qutab-ud-din Aibak died all of a sudden at Lahore, the Amirs and Maliks of Lahore put Aram Shah on the throne. Some texts say that he was the son of Aibak while others deny so.
He was a weak and worthless young man and was rejected by the people of Delhi. Iltutmish, who was the Governor of Badaun at that time, defeated him and acquired the throne.

ILTUTMISH (1210-36)

Shams-ud-din Illtutmish was the son-in-law of Aibak. He is considered the greatest of the slave kings and the real consolidator of the Turkish conquest in India.
He suppressed the revolts of ambitious nobles and sent expeditions against the Rajputs in Ranthambor, Jalor, Gwalior, Ajmer, Malwa.
Prevented Chengiz Khan attack b refusing to give refuge to an enemy of Khan, Jalaluddin Mangabarani (a ruler from Iran). Thus, due to his diplomatic skill he

· Prevented Mongol attack. He got his authority (Sultanate of Delhi) recognized by the Caliph of Baghdad (Khalifa), as a member of world fraternity of Islamic states.

He formed Turkan-i-Chahalgani or Chalisa (a group of 40 powerful Turkish nobles to suppress nobles).
Divided his empire into IQTAS, an assignment of land in lieu of salary, which he distributed to his officers. Every lqtadar had to maintain law and order and collect revenue. After deducting his salary and the expenses of the government, he sent the surplus revenue to the Central Government. Iqtadars were transferable.
He introduced the silver tanks and the copper jital - 2 basic coins of the Sultanate.
He patronized Minhaj-ul-Siraj, the author of Tabaqat-i-Nasiil.
He is called the Father of Tomb Building (built Sultan Garhi in Delhi).
As his successor, declared Razia, thus deviating from the normal practice.

RUKNUDDIN FIRUZ SHAH (1236)

Iltutmish had many sons but as all of them were incompetent, he appointed his daughter Raziya as his successor.
In spite of this, the nobles of the court who considered themselves too proud to bow their-heads before a woman, put on the throne Ruknuddin Firuz Shah who was the eldest son of Iltutmish. But he was an utterly worthless person.
He took pleasure in riding through the streets of Delhi on an elephant and scattering gold among the people. He left the works of the government in the hands of his ambitious mother, Shah Tlurkan. She was originally a Turkish handmaid. She had her revenge against all those who had offended her in her youth.
The result of all was that rebellions occurred on all sides. Finally Ruknuddin and her mother were put to death and throne was given to Raziya.

RAZIYA (1236-1240)

She was the first and the last Muslim woman ruler of medieval India. She succeeded her brother in 1236 and ruled for 3 ¹/2 years.
She disregarded purdah, began to adorn male attire and rode out in public on elephant back.
She promoted Jamaluddin Yaqut, an Abyssinian, to the important office of superintendent of the stables. It provoked the Turkish nobles. There were simultaneous revolts in the various parts of the kingdom. The Governor of Lahore was the first to create trouble but he was defeated.
There was a serious rebellion in Bharinda. Malik Ikhtiyaruddin Altunia, Governor of Bhatinda, refused to acknowledge the suzerainty of Raziya. Raziya, accompanied by Yaqut marched against Altunia. On the way, the Turkish followers of Altunia murdered Yaqut and imprisoned Raziya. She had to marry Altunia to get out of the situation.
But she was killed, along with her husband, by Bahram Shah, a son of Iltutmish, on their way back to Delhi.
Raziya was an excellent horsewoman who led the army herself. Her only problem was that she was a lady.

Note:

After Razia, the battle of succession continued in which the following rulers ruled insignificantly:

§ Muizuddin Bahram Shah (1240 - 1242)

§ Alauddin Masud Shah (1242 - 1246)

§ Nasiruddin Mehmud (1246 - 1265)

BALBAN (1266-1286)

He himself was a member of Chalisa. To guard himself, he got every member of Iltutmish family killed and gave a death blow to the Turkish nobility (Chalisa).
He ordered the separation of military department from the finance department (diwan-i-wizarat), and the former was placed under a ministry for military affairs (diwan-i-ariz).
The declared the Sultan as the representative of God on earth. He impressed upon the people that king was the deputy of God (niyabat-i-khudai) and the shadow of God (zil-i-ilahi). Introduced Sijdah or Paibos practice, in which the people were required to kneel and touch the ground with their head to greet the Sultan. He also instructed to the ulemas to confine themselves to religious affairs and not to engage in political activities. He also started the festival of Nauroz.
In order to win the confidence of the public, he administered justice with extreme impartiality. He employed an efficient spy system.
He was a liberal patron of Persian literature and showed special favour to the poet, Amir Khusro.
He was deeply racist and excluded non-Turks from the administration.
He strengthened the frontiers against Mongols.
But his son, Muhammad's death was a smashing blow to Balban and the death-knell to his dynasty.
After Balban's death, Kaiqubad (1287-1290) sat on throne but he was an inefficient and fun-loving person.

THE KHALJI DYNASTY

Coming of Khaljis marked the end of monopolization of power by the Turkish nobility and racial dictatorship.

JALALUDDIN FIRUZ KHALJI (1290-1296)

He was the first ruler to put forward the view that since a large majority of people in India are Hindus, the state in India could not be a total Islam state.
The most important event of his reign was the invasion of Devagiri in 1294 by his nephew and son-in-law, Ali Gurshap or Ala-ud-din Khalji. Devagiri was the capital of the Yadava kingdom in the Deccan and Ala-ud-din plundered the vast treasury.
Married his daughter to Ulugh Khan, a descendent of Chengiz Khan, to win their goodwill.

ALAUDDIN KHALJI (1296-1316)

He assassinated his uncle and proclaimed himself Sultan winning over the nobles and soldiers to his side by a lavish use of gold (accumulated from Devagiri).
After coming to power, he massacred the old Balbani and Jalali nobles and the Mongols who had settled in Delhi, and some of his own family members.
His first conquest was of the rich kingdom Gujarat, (ruled by the Vaghela king, Rai Kama Dev 11). This conquest is notable for two reasons – first, he married the Raja's wife, Kamla Devi; and secondly, there only he acquired Malik Kafur, a eunuch, who later on rose to become a great military general.
Then he captured Ranthambhor, Chittor and Malwa. Chittor was ruled by a Gahlot king, Ratna Singh whose queen Padmini committed jauhar when his husband was defeated. Alauddin named Chittor as Khizrabad, after his son.
After his conquest of north India, he sent Malik Kafur towards South.
Malik defeated Yadavas of Devagiri (king was Ram Chandra Deva), Kakatiya king Pratap Rudra Deva I of Warangal, Hoysalas of Dwarsamudra (king was Vira Ballala III) and Pandyas of Madurai (king was Maravarman Kulasekhara). He is said to have reached as far as Rameshwaram where he built a mosque. Thus, the whole of Deccan was subjugated.
He strengthened the North West Frontier under his trusted commander Ghazi Malik.
He adopted Balban's policy of 'Blood and Iron' in tackling the Mongol menace.
Added an entrance door to Qutab Minar, Alai Darwaza and built his capital at Siri.
Also built Hauz Khas, Mahal Hazaar Satoon and Jamait Khana Mosque in Delhi.
Adopted the title Sikandar-i-Sani.

ALAUDDIN'S ADMINISTRATIVE MEASURES

First Sultan to have permanent army – paid soldiers in cash, imported horses, detailed description of each soldier (Chehra) and each horse (Dagh) was kept (first time).
He took radical preventive measure to prevent rebellion

a) Confiscation of the religious endowments and free grants of lands.

b) An efficient espionage system was built.

c) Sale of liquor and intoxicants prohibited.

d) Restrictions and strong checks on social gatherings, marriages between the families of nobles etc.

Revenue Reforms :

Measured the cultivable land and fixed land revenue accordingly; Biswa was declared to be the standard unit of measurement.

The state demand was half of the produce/Biswa.

House tax (ghari) and pasture tax (chari) were imposed.

A special post Mustakhraj was created for the purpose of collection of revenue.

Market control/Economic regulations

a) The price was fixed by the state of commodities.

b) Four separate markets were established for various commodities‑

Central grain market, market for manufactured goods, market for general items and market for horses, cattle and slaves.

c) The sultan received daily reports of these from independents source (sepces).

d) Strict punishment for cheating and underweightment.

First Thukish Sultan of Delhi who separated religion from politics. He proclaimed –“Kingship know no kinship”.
Though Alauddin was illiterate, he was patron of learning and art. There was many great poets in his court. Both Amir Khusro and Mir Hasan Dehlvi enjoyed his patronage.

QUTBUDDIN MUBARAK SHAH (1316-1320)

He was one of the sons of Alauddin who, somehow, escaped the preying eyes of Malik Kafur. After the death of Kafur he became the king.
After seating himself on the throne, he tried to win over the goodwill of the people. He cancelled all harsh regulations started by his father.
During his reign, many revolts took place across the country. Although he was able to crush them, he wasn't able to run the administration smoothly

NASIRUDDIN KHUSRO SHAH (1320)

He killed Mubarak Shah and usurped the throne. But like his mentor, he too was an incapable ruler.
He was defeated and killed by Ghazi Malik. With him, the thirty year rule of Khalji dynasty also came to an end.

THE TUGHLAQ DYNASTY

GHIYASUDDIN TUGHLAQ (1320-25)

Ghiyasuddin Tlighlaq or Ghazi Malik was the founder of the Tlighlaq Dynasty. This dynasty is also known as the dynasty of the Qaraunah Turks as the father of Ghiasuddin 'Ibghlaq was a Qaraunah Turk.
He was the first Sultan of Delhi who took up the title of Ghazi or slayer of the infidels.
He liberalized Alauddin's administrative policies and took keen interest in the construction of canals and formulated a famine policy. The judicial and police arrangements were made efficient. The Chehra and Dagh system introduced by the Alauddin was continued. Efficient postal services were restored.
Built the fortified city of Tughlaqabad and made it his capital.
Dispatched his son, Jauna Khan to re-establish the authority in Warangal (Kakatiyas) and Madurai (Pandyas).
Had troublesome relationship with the sufi saint, Shaikh Nizamuddin Aulia.
Died in 1325, after a fall from a high-raised pavilion. Ibn Batuta, the Moroccon traveller, who was in Delhi at that time, opined that his death was due to sabotage arranged by his son,Jauna Khan.

MUHAMMAD BIN TUGHLAQ (1325-1351)

Real name was Jauna Khan.
Regarded as the most controversial figure in Indian history, because of his five ambitious projects

§ Increase in the land revenue in the Doab, between Ganga and Yamuna in north India. The measure proved to be ill-timed, as Doab was passing through famine which was followed by plague.

§ He was committed to maintaining the Sultanate's expansion into the newly-conquered provinces of peninsular India. To have better administration of these southern parts of the Empire, Muhammad moved the capital from Delhi to Devagiri in the Deccan, renaming that city Devagiri as Daulatabad. Instead of moving just his government offices there, he forcibly moved the entire population of Delhi to the new capital. The plan failed due to inadequate water supply arrangements in Devagiri; the capital had to be shifted back again to Delhi after two years. A vast amount of the population died during the moves due to the inadequate travel arrangements. It was said that Delhi was a ghost town for years after the move back.

§ He also had the idea of introducing token currency for the first time in India, modelled after the Chinese example, using copper coins, backed by silver and gold kept in the treasury. However, very few people exchanged their gold/silver coins for the new copper ones and the tokens were easy to forge, which led to heavy losses. Later, the Sultan repealed his verdict and all the copper coins were redeemed in silver or gold from the treasury, making it empty.

§ Muhammad Tughlaq planned an expedition for the conquest of Khurasan and Iraq. But the scheme was abandoned as conditions in Iraq improved (paid the extra army for one full year).

§ The plan for the conquest of Karajal (Kumaon hills) also met with a disastrous end.

During his last days, the whole of S. India became independent and three major independent states—The Empire of Vijaynagar, The Bahmani kingdom and Sultanate of Madura were founded.
A new department for agriculture Dewan-i-Kohi was setup.
He knew Arabic and Persian languages. He was also an expert in philosophy, astronomy, logic and mathematics. He was also a good calligrapher.
He built the fortress of Adilabad and the city of Jahanpanah.
The famous traveller, Ibn Batuta came to Delhi during 1334. He acted as the Quazi of the capital for 8 years. He has recorded the contemporary Indian scene in his Safarnamah (called Rehla).

FIROZ SHAH TUGHLAQ (1351-1388)

He was Muhammad's cousin. He was chosen the Sultan by the nobles.
He tried to appease everybody. He cancelled the loans of peasants which had been advanced by his predecessor. He did not give any harsh punishment and banned the inhuman practices like cutting hands, nose, etc. Agriculture was developed by the reclamation of wastelands and by providing irrigation facilities. _Heconstructed four canals for irrigation.
He made iqtadary system hereditary. The principle of heredity was recognised not only in civil offices, but also in army Soldiers were given land assignments instead of cash payment.
Imposed some new taxes:

§ Kharaj: a land tax equal to 1/10 of the produce of the land (by Hindus only)

§ Jaziya: a tax by non-muslims (even by brahmins)

§ Zakat: tax on property (@ 2.5%) (by Muslims only)

§ Khams: 1/5th of booty captured in war

Took steps to translate Hindu religious texts & Sanskrit books on music into Persian.
Built new towns - Hissar, Firozpur, Fatehabad, Firozabad (the present day Firoz Shah Koda in Delhi) and Jaunpur.
Set up hospitals, dug a number of canals, dams, mosques.
Repaired Qutab Minar when it was struck by lightening.
Built his capital Firozabad and to beautify it, brought 2 Ashoka Pillars, one from Topara in Ambala & the other from Meerut.
Was fond of slaves (had around 1,80,000 slaves).
Wrote a book ‘Fatuhat Firozshahi’.
Gained notoriety for temple breaking and Mathura was destroyed during his period.
Barani, the historian was in his court. He wrote two well known works of history Tarikh-i-Firozshahi and Fatwa-i-Jahandari.
Khwaja Abdul Malik Isami wrote Futuh-us-Sulatin.
He formed Diwan-Whairat and built Dar-ul-Shafa of a charitable hospital at Delhi also introduced 2 new coin-Adha (50 jairal) and bikh (25% jital).

THE LATER TUGHLAQS

Firoz Tughlaq was succeeded by his grand son who took up the title of Ghiyasuddir Tughlaq Shah 11. He was a pleasure-loving king who tried to strengthen his position by merely disposing of all possible rivals.
Ghiyasuddin was replaced by Abu Bakr Shah in 1389.
Abu Bakrwas replaced by Nasiruddin Muhammad in 1390, who ruled till 1394. His son Alauddin Sikandar Shah ascended the throne briefly in 1394. But he fell sick almost, immediately after his accession and died in 1394 only.
The vacant throne now fell to Nasiruddin Mahmud Tughlaq. In his reign, Timur invaded India.

THE SAYYID DYNASTY

· Khizr Khan (1414-1421) founded the dynasty and claimed to have descended from the (prophet of Islam.

He helped Timur in his invasion, so he was given the governorship of Lahore, Multan & Dipalpur. When Khizr Khan got possession of Delhi, his position was very weak and he ( didn't take up the title of king and contended himself with that of Rayat-i-Ala. The coins were struck and Khutba was read in the name of Timur and after his death in the name of his successor, Shah Rukh.
Khizr Khan's 3 successors – Mubarak Shah (1421-33), Muhammad Shah (1434-43) and Alauddin Alam Shah (1443-51) were incapable leaders.
Sayyid dynasty's 37 years remained troubled with external invasions, internal chaos, etc.
Provided opportunity to Bahlul Lodhi.
Yahya-bin-Ahmed-bin-Abdullah-Sirhindi wrote Tarikh-i-Mubarakshahi (history from Mahmud to Muhammad Shah of Sayyid Dynasty).

THE LODHI DYNASTY

They were Afghans by race (considered the first Afghan dynasty of India).
They were ruling over Sirhind when Sayyids were in India.

BAHLUL LODHI (1451-1489)

Conquested Jaunpur by ousting Sharqui dynasty.
Revived Sultanate to quite an extent.

SIKANDAR LODHI (1489-1517)

Real name was Nizam Khan. Noblest of the three Lodhi rulers.
Introduction the Gaz-i-Sikandari (Sikandar’s yard) of 32 degits for measuring cultivated fields.
In 1504, he founded the city of Agra and made it his capital.
Set up and efficient espionage system and introduced the system of autditing of accounts.
Took care of department of justice and department of agriculture.
Was a poet himself and wrote verses in Persianunder the pen-name of Gulrukhi.
Repaired Qutab Minar.

IBRAHIM LODHI (1517-1526)

Repressive ruler.
Was defeated and killed by Babur in the I Battle of Panipat in 1526.
With this the Sultanate of Delhi ended

BENGAL

Broke away from Delhi under the reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
In 1342, Ilyas Khan founded a new dynasty.
Famous sultan was Ghiyas-ud-din Azam who established friendly relations with China and encouraged trade and commerce.
The celebrated poet, Maladhar Basu, compiler of Sri-Krishna Vijay, was patronized by the Sultans and was given the title of 'Gunaraja Khan'.
Shankaradeva and Chaitanya belonged to this time.
The province was occupied by Sher Shah Suri in 1538.

GUJARAT

Broke away from Delhi in 1397, under Zafar Khan who assumed the title of Sultan Muzaffar Shah.
His grandson Ahmed Shah-I, built a new city, Ahmedabad. He built Jama Masjid of Ahmedabad and Tin Darwaza.
The next prominent ruler was Mahmud Begarha. In his reign, Portuguese set up a factory at Diu. His court poet was the Sanskrit scholar; Udayaraja.
In 1573, Akbar annexed Gujarat to his empire.

MALWA

Malwa was annexed by Alauddin Khalji in 1305 and remained a part of Sultanate until its Governor, Dihawan Khan Ghuri asserted his independence in 1435.
It became powerful under the reign of Hushang Shah. He beautified the city Mandu with Jama Masjid, Hindol Mahal and Jahaz Mahal. Next ruler, Mahmud Khalji was defeated by Rana Kumbha.
Malwa became a part of Gujarat in 1531, and was finally annexed by the Mughals in 1562.

KASHMIR

Kashmir continued to be under its Hindu rulers up to 1339. its first muslin ruler was Shamsuddin Shah.
The greatest Muslim ruler was Zainul Abidin (1420-70). Accepted the policy of broad tolerance, introduced the art of shawl-making in Kashmir, built Zaina Lanka and artificial island in the Wular Lake. Called the "Badshah" (the great Sultan) and "Akbar of Kashmir" by the Kashmiris.
Later ruled by Chak dynasty, which later submitted to Akbar in 1586.
It is said that women played a leading role in their history.

MEWAR

Alauddin Khalji captured its capital Chittor in 1303. But Rajput rule was soon restored by Rana Hamir (1326-64).
The greatest ruler of this house was the famous Rana Kumbha Karan (1538-68). Rana Kumbha built the famous victory tower or 'Vijaya Stambh' at Chittor to commemorate his victory over Mahmud Khalji of Malwa.
His court was adorned by Mandan who wrote many books on architecture (Parsad Mandan, Rupa Mandan).
Another important king was Rana Sangram Singh (1509-28), who defeated Mahmud-II of Malwa and Ibrahim Lodhi. But he was defeated by Babur at Khanna in 1527.

RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS

THE SURS

There were 3 chief orders of Sufis in India: The Chishti, The Suharawadi and the Silsilah of Firdausi.
The link between the teacher or pir and his disciple or Muriel was a vital part of Sufi system. Every pit nominated a successor or Wali to carry out work. Khanqah was the place where Sufi mystics lived.

THE CHISHTI

· The Chisti order was established by Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti (Ajmer). His two main disciples were Bakhtiyar Kaki and Shaikh Hamiduddin Sufi.

· Others were Nizamuddin Auliya, Nasiruddin Chiragh-i-Dehlvi, the historian Barani and the poet Amir Khusro.

· It was popular in Delhi and the Doab region.

THE SUHRAWARDI

It was popular in Punjab and Sindh.
Popular saints were Shaikh Shihabuddin Suhrawardi and Hamid-ud-din Nagory.
Saints of this order had big jagirs and had close contact with the state.

THE FIRDAUSI ORDER

It was a branch of the Suhrawardi order and its activities were confined to Bihar. It was popularized by Shaikh Sharfuddin Yahya who was a disciple of Khwaja Nizamuddin Firdausi.

QADIRI ORDER

It was founded by Shaikh Abdul Qadir Jilani of Baghdad. It was popularized in India by Shah Niamatullah and Makhdum Muhammad Jilani.
Data Shikoh, the eldest son of Shah Jahan, was a follower of this order.

NAKSHABANDI ORDER

It was founded in India by the followers of Khwaja Pit Muhammad. It was popularized in India by Khwaja Baqi Billah who came to India from Kabul in the last years of the reign of Akbar.
Of all the Sufi orders, it was nearest to orthodoxy and it tried to counteract the liberal policies of Akbar who was considered by them as heretic.

SHATTARI ORDER

Shah Abdullah brought the Shattari order to India during the Lodhi Dynasty. Muhammad Ghhauth of Gwalior was the most important saint of this order.
Tansen was the follower of this order.

THE BHAKTI MOVEMENT

Among the Hindus, the Bhakti movement preached religion which was non-ritualistic and open to all without any distinction of caste or creed.
The real development of Bhakti took place in south India between 7th and 12th century. The bhakti saints came usually from lower castes. They disregarded castes, encouraged women to join in the gatherings and taught in the local vernacular language.

Ramanuia (12th century)

Earliest exponent of Bhakti Movement. According to him, the way of Moksha lies through Karma, Gyan and Bhakti. The performance of duty without any selfish motive purifies the mind. He gave the concept of Vishishtadvaita.

Nimbarkara

The next leader of the bhakti movement was Nimbarkara, a younger contemporary of Ramanuja. He was a worshipper of Krishna and Radha.

MADHAVACHARYA (1238-1317)

· He ranks with Ramanuja in the Vedanta system. He said that release from transmigration can be secured only by means of knowledge and devotion. His successor was Javatirtha.

Ramanand (15th century)

· First great Bhakti saint of north India. Worshipper of Lord Ram. He put emphasis on Bhakti and avoided both Gyan marg and Karma marg. His followers were Ravidas, Kabir, Dhanna, Sena, Tailor etc.

VIJAYNAGAR KINGDOM (1336-1580)~

Founded in 1336 as a result of the political and cultural movement against the Tughluq authority in the south.

THE SANGAMAS (1336-1485)

The empire of Vijaynagar was founded by Harihara-I and Bukka, two of the five sons of Sangama. They were originally feudatories of Kakatiyas. Harihara-I was the first ruler. A Bhakti saint Vidyaranya motivated them.
The next ruler was Deva Raya-I. He constructed a dam across the river Tungabhadra to bring the canals into the city to relieve the shortage of water.
Italian traveler Nicolo Conti visited during his reign (Also a Russian merchant, Nikitin).
His court was adorned by the gifted Telegu poet Srinatha, the author of Haravilasam.
There was a 'Pearl Halr in the palace where he honored men of eminence.
Devaraya-II (1423-46) was the greatest Sangama ruler.
During his time, Vijaynagar became the most wealthy and powerful state.
The commoners believed that he was the in carnation of Indra.
The inscriptions speak of his title 'Gajabetekara' i.e., the elephant hunter.
He wroteMahanataka Sudhanidhi and a commentary on the Brahma Sutras of Badaryana (Both in Sanskrit).
Persian ambassador Abdur Razzaq visited his court.
Sangama dynasty was replaced by Saluva dynasty, which lasted for 2 decades. Ultimately, a new dynasty called the Tuluva dynasty (1503-69) was founded by Vira Narsimha.

· Krishnadeva Raya (1509-29) was their greatest ruler. Portuguese traveller, Domingo Paes, writes high about him. Berbosa also came as a traveler.

He was a warrior, an administrator and a patron of art and literature.
The Nayakar and Ayagar systems were the backbones of the Vijayanagar administration.

THE NAYAKAR SYSTEM

Under this system, military chiefs were assigned certain pieces of land called amaram. These chiefs, known as nayaks, had revenue and administrative rights on their lands. They were required to maintain elephants, horses and soldiers in certain numbers which were included in the royal army during wars. They also had to pay a sum of money to the central exchequer. In course of time. nayaks began to assert their military, administrative and economic powers which later became a major cause of the decline of the Vijayanagar empire.

The Ayagar System

It involved the constitution of a 12-member officials group by the Centre to maintain administration at the village level. These officials, called the ayagars, were village functionaries and constituted of groups of families. They were given, for their service, a portion of or plot in the village, which were tax-free. The ayagars were hereditary officials and there was to be no sale or purchase of land without their permission.
His political ideas are contained in his Telegu work 'Amuktamalyada'(also Jambavati Kalyanam in Sanskrit).
As a great patron of literature, he was known asAbizinava Bhoja, Andhra Pitamaha and Andhra Bhoja.
Eight great poets of Telegu, known as Ashta Diggaja'adomed his court. Pedanna wrote
Manucharitam, while Tenalirama was the author of Panduranga Mahamatyam.
Built a new city'Nagalapuram' and decorated it with Hazura temple and Vithalswamy temple.
The successors of Krishnadeva Raya were weak and incompetent rulers. Achyuta Raya followed him. A Portuguese traveler Fernoa Nuniz came during his reign.
Sadasiva, the last ruler of the dynasty, was a puppet in the hands of his PM, Rama Raya, who was an able but arrogant man.
In 1565, Battle of Talikota was fought between an alliance of Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golkonda and Bidar on one side and Sadasiva on the other side. Sadashiv was defeated.
After that, Aravidu dynasty was found by Rama Raya's brother, Thirumala.
Aravidu dynasty lingered on for almost 100 yrs, but no political influence.
Caesor Fredrick (1567-68 AD) visited Vijaynagar after the Battle of Talikota.
Vina (musical instrument) acquired a prominent place in the Vijayanagar empire.

BAHMANI KINGDOM

The Bahmani Kingdom of the Deccan was the most powerful of all the independent Muslim kingdoms that arose on account of the disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate.

Alauddin Hasan, who took the title of Abul Muzaffar Alauddin Bahman Shah, was the first king of Bahmani Kingdom in 1347.
Bahman Shah selected Gulbarga as his capital and gave it the name of Ahsanabad. At the time of his death, his dominions had four provinces, namely Gulbarga, Daulatabad, Berar and Bidar.
Bahman Shah (1347-58) was succeeded by his elder son, Muhammad Shah I (1358-75). He had troubled relationship with Vijaynagar Empire.

· Mujahid Shah (1375-78) succeeded Muhammad Shah. During his rule, Raichur Doab was the bone of contention between Vijaynagar and Bahmani kingdom.

The next ruler was Muhammad Shah II (1378-97). A man of peace, he set up monastries and public schools.
Muhammad Shah Il was followed by his two sons, namely Ghiyasuddin and Shamsuddin. However, their rule lasted for a few months only. The throne was finally captured by Tajuddin Firoz Shah (1397-1422). During his term, Bahmani Kingdom and Vijaynagar Empire were mostly in war.
The next ruler was Tajuddin's brother, Ahmad Shah (1422-36), who again had a fight with Vijaynagar Empire.
Ahmad Shah was succeeded by his son Alauddin II (1336-58).
Humayun (1458-61) succeeded his father Alauddin II. He was so cruel that he got the title of "Zalim" or the tyrant.
Humayun was succeeded by his son Nizam Shah (1461-63). He was succeeded by his brother Muhammad Shah III (1463-82). During his reign, his minister Mahmud Gawan was practically the king. Mahmud won Konkan, Goa, Orissa, Kanchi, etc. Nikitin, a Russian merchant, visited Bidar during his reign.
Muhammad Shah III was succeeded by his son Mahmud Shah (1482-1518).
The last ruler of the Bahmani Kingdom was Kalim Ullah Shah (1524-27).
After the break up of the Bahmani Kingdom, five separate States of the Muslims came into existence:

§ Adilshahi Kingdom of Bijapur: Founded by Yusuf Adil Shah. It was annexed by Aurangzeb in 1686.

§ Nizamshahi Kingdom of Ahmednagar: Founded by Malik Ahmad. It was annexed by the Mughals in 1636.

§ Imadshahi Kingdom of Berar: Founded by Fateh Ullah Imad Shah. It was annexed by Ahmednagar in 1574.

§ Qutubshahi Kingdom of Golconda: Founded by Qutub Shah. It was annexed by Aurangzeb in 1687.

§ Baridshahi Kingdom of Bidar: Founded by Amir Ali Barid. It was annexed by Bijapur in 1618-19.

THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

BABAR (1526 -1530)

Was a descended of Timur on his father's side and Chengiz Khan on his mother's side. His family belonged to the Chaghtai section of the Turkish race and were commonly known as Mughals.
Originally ruled over Ferghana (Afghanistan). He became the Sultan at the early age of 12, when his father Sultan Umar Shaikh Mirza died.
He was invited to attack India by Daulat Khan Lodhi (Subedar of Punjab), Alam Khan (uncle of Ibrahim Lodhi) and Rana Sanga.
Defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat in 1526. In this Babar used the Rumi (Ottoman) device of lashing a large number of carts to form a defending wall with breastwork in between to rest guns (Mlghama system of warfare). His artillery was led by Ustad Ali and Mustafa.
Defeated Sangrarn Singh (Rana Sanga) of Mewar in the Battle of Khanna in 1527. This weakened the Rajput confederacy and strengthened Babar's position. Babar took the title of "Ghazi" after that.
Defeated another Rajput ruler, Medini Rai (of Chanderi) in the Battle of Chanderi in 1528.
Defeated the Afghan chiefs under Mahmud Lodi brother of Ibrahim Lodi) in the Battle of Ghagra in 1529.
His victories led to rapid popularization of gunpowder and artillery in India.
Died in 1530. Buried at Aram Bagh in Agra; later his body was taken to Aram Bagh, Kabul.
His memoir, the Tazuk-i-Baburi in Turki language is a classic of world literature. It shows his humane outlook and sensitivity to the beauty of nature. Also wrote `Masnavi'.

Note :

After the Kushans. Babur was the first to bring Kabul and Kandahar into the Indian Empire, which provided stability since it was the staging post of invasions of India. This helped in promoting trade since these towns were the starting points of caravans meant for China in the east and Mediterranean in the west.

HUMAYUN (1530 -40 AND 1555-56)

He was born to Mahim Begam and Babur. The throne inherited by Humayun was not a bed of roses. Babar had practically got no time to consolidate his position and authority. Before he could put the whole country on a stable basis, he was gone. He did a blunder by dividing his empire among his three brothers - Kamran, Hindal and Askari.
Built Dinpanah at Delhi as his second capital.
Defeated the Afghan forces at Daurah in 1532.
Sher Shah Suri gradually gained power during his time.
He was attacked by Sher Shah at Chausa (Battle of Chausa) in 1539, but escaped. Here Humayun was saved by Nizam, a water carrier (saqqa).
But in the Battle of Kannauj (also called Battle of Bilgrama) in 1540, he was defeated by Sher Shah and had to flee.
Passed nearly 15 years (1540-1555) in exile.
First fled to Sind, which was under Shah Hussain Arghuna. In 1545, he went to the Persian emperor's court.
Had the chance to return in 1555. Sher Shah, the victor of Kannauj, died in 1545. He was succeeded by his son Islam Shah, who ruled up to 1553. He was succeeded by Muhammad Adil Shah. He was very fond of pleasures and left the affairs of his government in the hands of Hemu, his minister. His authority was challenged by Ibrahim Shah and Sikandar Shah. There were a large number of bloody battles among the various rivals. The net result of _allthis was that the Suri Empire was broken up.
Bairam Khan, his most faithful officer, helped him in this.
Died in 1556, due to a fall from his library building stairs (Sher Mandal, Delhi) seven months after he captured Delhi. It is said about him that "Humayun tumbled through life and he tumbled out of it".
Gulbadan Begum, his half-sister, wrote Humayun-nama.

AKBAR (1556 - 1605 )

Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar was the son of Humayun and Hamida Banu Begam. He was born at Amarkot in 1542.
Bairam Khan coronated him ^atKalanaur when he was 14 years old.
Bairam Khan represented him in the 9-cond Battle of Panipat in 1556 against Hemu Vikramaditya. Hemu, the PM of Muhammad Shah Adil of Bengal, was defeated. Hemu is considered the last Hindu king of Delhi.
Between 1556-1560, Akbar ruled under Bairam Khan's regency. (Bairam Khan was assassinated at Patan, Gujarat, on his way to Mecca byone of his old Afghani enemies).
Conquered Malwa in 1561 defeating Baz Bahadur. He was later made the Mansabdar to honour his skill as a musician.
Then defeated Garh-Katanga (ruled by Rani Durgawati) followed by Chittor and Ranthambhure.
Akbar followed a policy of reconciliation with the Rajputs. Some of the Rajput princes entered into matrimonial alliances with him. In 1562, he married the eldest daughter of Raja Bharmal of Jaipur. In 1570, he married princesses from Bikaner and Jaisalmer. In 1584, Prince Salim was married to the daughter of Raja Bhagwan Das. All these activities paved the way for friendship between Rajputs and Mughals (except Mewar).
Won Gujarat in 1572. It was in order to commemorate his victory of Gujarat that Akbar gotthe Buland Darwaza constructed at Fatehpur Sikri.
Fought Battle of Haldighati with Mewar forces on 18 June, 1576. Mughals were represented by Raja Maan Singh and Rajputs by Rana Pratap Singh. Rajputs were defeated.
Raja Maan Singh conquered Bihar, Bangal and Orissa for him.
In 1586, he conquered Kashmir and in 1593, he conquered Sindh. His last conquest was at the fort of Asirgarh in Deccan.
At his death in 1605, his empire included Kashmir, Sind, Kandhar and extended as far as the Godavary in the Deccan.

IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF AKBAR’S RULE

Ralph Fitch (1585) was the first Englishman to visit Akbar’s court.
Abolished jaziyah in 1564 and the tax on pilgrims. The use of beef was also forbidden.
Regularly visited the shrine of Sheikh Muinuddin Chishti at Ajmer.
Believed in Sulh-i-Kul or peace to all.
Built Ibadatkhana (Hall of prayers) at Fatehpur Sikri. He used to conduct religious discussions there with: Purshottam Das (Hindu), Maharaji Rana (Parsi), Harivijaya Suri (Jain), Monserate and Aquaviva (Christian).
In 1579, Akbar issued the ‘Decree of Infallibility’.
Formulated an order called Din-i-Ilahi or Tauhid-i-ilahi in 1581. Birbal, Abul Fazl and Faizi joined the order.
His Land Revenue System was known as Todar Mal Bandobast or Zabti System. Three salient features of Zabti system were – measurement of land, classification of land and fixation of rates. Todar Mal and Muzaffar Khan Turbati were the important revenue officers.
Also introduced the Mansabdary System to organise the nobility as well as the army Mansabdar meant holder of a rank. There were two ranks: Zat and Sawar. Zat fixed the status and standing in the administrative hierarchy while sawar fixed the number of troopers held by the Mansabdar. It wasn’t hereditary system.

JAHANGIR (1605-1627)

Akbar’s eldest son Salim assumed the title of Nur-ud-Muhammad Jahangir and ascended the throne.
He mostly lived in Lahore which he adorned with gardens and buildings.
But soon, his eldest son Khusro revolted, which was suppressed.
The fifth Sikh guru, Guru Arjun Dev, had helped Khusro. So he was also executed after 5 days of torture.
Rana Amar Singh (son of Maharana Pratap) of Mewar submitted before Jahangir in 1615. Rana’s son Karan Singh was made a mansabdar in the Mughal court.
Faced a formidable opponent in Malik Amber in his expedition to Ahmednagar.
His grease failure was the loss of Kandahar to Persia in 1622.
The most important event in Jahangir’s life was his marriage to Mehr-un-Nisa, the widow of Sher Afghani in 1611. The title of Nur Jahan was conferred on her.
She had great influence on Jahangir’s life, as she was given the status of Padshah Begum, coins were struck in her name and all royal farmans beared her name.
She got high positions for her father (Itmad-ud-daulah), and her brother (Asaf Khan). She married Asaf’s daughter, Mumtaz Mahal to Khurram (later, Shahjahan). This cemented the alliance between Nurjahan, her father, Asaf Khan and Khurram. This alliance practically ruled the empire for 10 years. Problem arose when Nur Jahan married her daughter by Sher Afghani to Jahangir’s youngest son, Shahyar. Now Nur Jahan supported him for the heir-apparent.
All these events hampered the military events for the recovery of Kandhar.
Had a chain of justice outside his palace in Agra (called Zanzir-i-Adil). He also laid a number of gardens, such as the Shalimar and Nishat gardens in Kashmir.
Captain Hawkins (1608-11) and Sir Thomas Roe (1615-1619) visited his court. Due to the efforts of Sir Thomas Roe English factories were established at Surat and some other places.
Pietra Valle, famous Italian traveler came during his reign.
Tobacco growing started during his reign. It was brought by the Portuguese.

AKBAR'S NAVRATNAS

Abu'l-Fazl, the Wazir of Akbar, and author of the Akbarnama, an account of Akbar's reign. He also led the Mughal imperial army in its wars in the Deccan. He was assassinated in a plot contrived by Akbar's son. Salim.

Faizi was historian Abul Fazl's brother in Akbar's court. He was a poet composing in Persian and an all-round genius. Akbar highly recognized the genius in him and appointed him teacher for his son and gave place to him among his decorative 'Nav Ratnas'. His famous work Lilabati, is on mathematics.

Tansen, believed to be one of the greatest musician of all times, was bum in a Hindu family in Gwalior. He served as the court musician to King Ramachandra of Mewar and later to Akbar. Tansen accepted Islam at the hands of the great Sufi mystic and saint–Shaykh Muhammad Ghaus of Gwalior. It was believed that Tansen made miracles such as bringing rain and fire through singing the ragas Megh Malhar and Deepak, respectively.

Raja Birbal, alias Mahesh Das, was a courtier in the administration of Akbar. Birbal was referred to as a court wit as a result of the fact that he frequently had witty and humorous exchangs with Akbar. He was a poet and author whose wit and wisdom led the Emperor Akbar to invite him to be a part of the royal court and to bestow upon him a new name - Birbal. Akbar also conferred on him the title of "Raja".

Raja Todar Mal was Akbar's finance minister, who overhauled the revenue system in the kingdom. He introduced standard weights and measurements, revenue districts and officers. His systematic approach to revenue collection became a model for the future Mughals as well as the British. He had developed his expertise while working under Sher Shah. In 1582, Akbar bestowed on the raja the title Diwan-i-Ashraf.

Raja Man Singh was the Kacchwaha raja of Amber. He was a mansabdar and a trusted general of Akbar. He was the grandson of Akbar's father-in-law, Bharmal and the adopted son of Raja Bhagwan Das. He assisted Akbar in many battles including the well-known battle of Haldighati, among others. He also led campaigns in Orissa and Bengal.

Abdul Rahim Khan-e-Khana was a poet and the son of Akbar’s trusted caretaker, Bairam Khan. After Bairam Khan was murdered, Bairan Khan's wife became the second wife of Akbar, which made Abdul Rahim Khan-e-Khan his stepson. He had a high place among Akbar's Navratnas. Although a Muslim by birth, he was a devotee of Lord Krishna.

Faqir Aziao Din was one of Akbar's chief advisors.

Mullah Do Piaza was among the Mughal emperor Akbar’s chief advisors. Akbar regarded his advice in high esteem.

SHAHJAHAN (1628-1658)

Able general and administrator.
Had to face revolts in Bundelkhand (Jujjhar Singh Bundela of Orchcha) and in the Deccan (Khan-i-Jahan Lodi) in the initial years.
Shahjahan’s policy of annexing the Deccan was quite successful. Ahmednagar was annexed while Bijapur and Golconda accepted his overlordship.
Shahjahan also expelled the Portuguese from Hughli, as they were abusing their trading privileges.
In 1639, Shahjahan secured Kandahar and immediately fortified it. But Persia wrest Kandahar from the Mughals in 1649. Shahjahan sent three expeditions to recover Kandahar, but all failed.
Made his son, Aurangzeb, the Viceroy of Deccan in 1636. Aurangzeb first tenure was till 1644.
Aurangzeb’s second term as Viceroy in Deccan began in 1653 and continued till 1658. Aurangzeb built an effective Revenue Systems there (Murshid Kuli Khan was his dewan there).
Last 8 years of his life were very painful, as there was a brutal war of succession among his four sons – Dara, Shuja, Aurangzev and Murad.
Dara was his favourite and Auranzeb was the ablest.
Ultimately, Aurangzeb took control and he was made the prisoner in the Agra Fort, being looked after by his daughter, Jahan Ara, till his death in 1666.
His reign is considered the ‘Golden Age’ of the Mughal Empire.
2 Frenchmen, Bernier and Tavernier, and an Italian adventurer Manucci, visited during his reign.

TAJ MAHAL

Taj Mahal, the eternal love monument, is located in Agra. Shah Jahan commissioned its construction as a mausoleum for his favourite wife, Arjumand Bano Begum, better known as Mumtaz Mahal, in 1631. It was constructed in 22 years (1631-1653) by a workforce of 22,000. It is generally considered the finest example of Mughal architecture. The Taj Mahal was not designed by a single person. 'The project demanded talent from many quarters. Ustad Isa and Isa Muhammad Effendi are credited with a key role in the architectural design of the complex. The main dome was designed by Ismail Khan. Qazim Khan cast the solid gold finial that crowned the Turkish master's dome. Chiranjilal was chosen as the chief sculptor and mosaicist. Amanat Khan was the chief calligrapher. Muhammad Hanif was the supervisor of masons. Mir Abdul Karim and Mukkarimat Khan handled finances and the management of daily production.

The Taj rises on a high red sandstone base topped by a huge white marble terrace on which rests the famous dome flanked by four tapering minarets. Within the dome lies the jewel-inlaid cenotaph of the queen. The only asymmetrical object in the Taj is the casket of the emperor which was built beside the queen's as an afterthought. It is often described as one of the seven wonders of the modern world.

AURANGZEB ALAMGIR (1658-1707)

At the time of Shahjahan’s illness, Dara was in Delhi and the other brothers were in different place – Shuja in Bengal, Murad in Gujarat and Aurangzeb in Deccan.
Aurangzeb first defeated the Imperial army in the Battle of Dharmatt and then defeated a force led by Data in the Battle of Samugarh. Thereafter, he entered Agra and crowned himself with the title of ‘Alamgir’ (conqueror of the world).
Under him, the Mughal Empire reached its greatest extent, and the largest single state ever known in India from the dawn of history to the rise of British Power was formed.
His reign can be broadly divided into two 25 year periods; first in the affairs of N. India when the Maratha power under Shivaji emerged, and second marked by his preoccupations about he affairs of Deccan.
In his rule, various rebellions took place – Jat peasantry at Mathura, Satnami peasantry in Punjab and Bundelas in Bundelkhand.
He caused serious rift in the Mughal-Rajput alliance by his policy of annexation of Marwar in 1639 after the death of Raja Jaswant Singh.
In 1675, he ordered the arrest and execution of ninth Sikh guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur.
In 1679, he reimposed Jaziyah. Also, Nauraj, singing in the court, and the practice of ‘jharokha-darshan’ were banned. Also forbade inscription of Kalima (the Muslim credo) on the coins.
When he was conducting the campaign against Marwar, his son Akbar rebelled in 1681.
The Mughal conqests reached the territorial climax during his reign, as Bijapur (1686) and Golconda (1687) were annexed to the Mughal empire. The Mughal empire stretched from Kashmir in the north to Jinji in the south, from the Hindukush in the west to Chittagong in the east.
Patronized the greatest digest of Muslim law in India, Fatwa-i-Alamgiri.
Mutasib (regulator of moral conduct) was appointed.
He was called a ‘Darvesh’ or a ‘Zinda Pir’.
He also forbade Sati.

LATER MUGHALS/FALL OF THE MUGHALS

The empire lost power after Aurangzeb’s rule. His successors were weak and incapable rulers.

BAHADUR SHAH (1707-1712)

Assumed the title of Shah Alam I. Was also known as Shah-i-Bekhabar. He made peace with Guru Gobind Singh and Chhatrasal. He granted Sardeshmukhi to Marathas and also released Shahu.

JAHANDAR SHAH (1712-13)

First puppet Mughal emperor. He abolished jaziya.

FARRUKHSIYAR (1713-19)

Ascended the throne with the help of Sayyid brothers. He executed Banda Bahadur. Farrukhsiyar himself was murdered by the Sayyid brothers with Maratha help in 1719.

MOMUHAMMAD SHAH (1719-48)

Nadir Shah (of Iran) defeated him in the Battle of Karnal (1739) and took away (Nizam-ul-Mulk) founded Hyderabad, Murshid Quli Khan founded Bengal and Saddat Khan laid down the foundation of Awadh out of the realms of Mughal Empire. He was a pleasure-loving king and was nick-named Rangeela.

KOHINOOR

Kohinoor is a 105 carat (21.6 gm) diamond that was once the largest known diamond in the world. It originated in India, belonged to various Indian and Persian rulers who fought bitterly over it at various points in history, and seized as a spoil of war, it became part of the Crown Jewels of England when Queen Victoria was proclaimed empress of India. It is reputed to bring misfortune or death to any male who wears or owns it. Conversely, it is reputed to bring good luck to female owners.

Most sources agree that the Kohinoor was mined at Rayalaseema in Andhra Pradesh. It was first owned by Kakatiya dynasty, but the Kakatiya kingdom under Pratapa Rudra was ravaged in 1323 by Muhammad bin Tughluq. From then onwards, the stone passed through the hands of successive rulers of the Delhi sultanate, finally passing to Babur in 1526. Shah Jahan had the stone placed into his ornate Peacock Throne. It was taken away by Nadir Shah in 1739 along with the Peacock Throne. After the assassination of Nadir Shah in 1747 it came into the hands of Ahmed Shah Abdali of Afghanistan. It was passed down to his descendants until it was taken by Maharaja Ranjit Singh of Punjab in 1813. From him, the gem passed on to the British. Ranjit Singh's successor. Duleep Singh gave the gem to Queen Victoria in 1851. In 1852, under the personal supervision of Victoria's consort, Prince Albert, the diamond was cut from 186 1/16 carats (37.21 gm) to its current 105.602 carats (21.61 gm), to increase its brilliance. The stone is presently used as the centre piece of the crowns of the Queens consort of the United Kingdom. Queen Alexandra was the first to use the stone, followed by Queen Mary. In 1936, the stone was set into the crown of the new Queen Elizabeth (later known as the Queen Mother), wife of King George VI. In 2002, the crown rested atop her coffin as she lay in state.

AHMAD SHAH (1748-54)

During his period, Safdarjung, the nawab of Awadh, was the Wazir or Prime Minister of the empire.

ALAMGIR II (1754-59)

SHAH ALAM II (1759-1806)

Shah Alam-11 joined hands with Mir Qasim of Bengal and Shuja-ud-Daula of Awadh in the Battle of Buxar against the British in 1764. They were defeated.

AKBAR II (1806-37)

He gave Rammohan the title ‘Raja’. He sent Raja Ram Mohan Roy to London to seek a raise in his allowance.

BAHADUR SHAH II (1837-57)

He was confined by the British to the Red Fort. During the revolt of 1857, he was proclaimed the Emperor by the rebels. He was deported to Rangoon after that.

MUGHAL ADMINISTRATION

The entire kingdom was divided into suba or pranta, suba into sarkar, sarkar into pargana and the pargana into villages.
Babar and Humayun had a Prime Minister known as Vakil. The office of Vakil, was, however, discontinued after Bairam Khan.
Wazir was the Prime Minister.
Dewan was the head of the revenue department.
Mir Bakshi: Military Department.
Khan-i- Saman: Royal house-hold.
Qazi-ul-quzat: Judicial Department. The qazis were helped by the muftis.
Sadr-us-Sadr: Charitable and religious endowments.
Mustaufi: Auditor-General.
Amil: Judicial officer in civil and judicial disputes.
Quanungo: Head accountant.
Lambardar: Village headman.
Patwari: Village accountant.
During Akbar's reign the empire was divided into 15 subas. The number reached 21 during Aurangzeb's reign.
The territory of the empire was divided into khalisa (crown lands), jagirs (land granted to nobles) and inam (land granted to religious and learned men).

MUGHAL BUILDINGS

Babar

Built two mosques: one at Kabulibagh in Panipat and the other in Sambhal in Rohilkhand.

Humayun

Laid the foundation of the city Din Panah at Delhi.
Built Jamali Mosque and the Mosque of Isa Khan at Delhi.
Humayun's tomb is called the prototype of Taj Mahal. It was built by his widow Haji Begum.

Akbar

Built Agra fort (in red sandstone).
He also built Fatehpur Sikri (city of victory) near Agra. In Fatehpur Sikri are the Panch Mahal, Diwan-I-Khas, Diwan-I-Aam, Jodhabai's palace and Sheikh Salim Chishti's tomb. Buland Darwaza (53m high) is located here, commemorating the emperor's conquest of Gujarat.
Built his own tomb at Sikandra, near Agra.
Built the temple of Govindadeva at Vrindavan.

Jahangir

With Jahangir's reign, the practice of putting up buildings in marble and decorating the walls with floral designs made of semi-precious stones started. This method of decoration was known as Pietro Dura.
Nurjahan built the tomb of Itmad-ud-Daula at Agra.
Jahangir built Mod Masjid at Lahore and his own mausoleum at Shandara (Lahore).

Shahjahan

Built Taj Mahal, Moti Masjid at Agra, Jama Masjid and Red Fort at Delhi, Shalimar Bagh at Lahore and city of Shahjahanabad.
Also built Mussaman Burz at Agra (where he spent his last years in captivity), Sheesh Mahal, etc.
He got the peacock throne built by Bebadal Khan on which Amir Khusrau's couplet —‘If there is a paradise on earth, it is here’, inscribed on it.

Aurangzeb

Built Moti Masjid at Delhi and Badshahi Mosque at Lahore.
Built Bibi ka Makbara in Aurangabad.

MUGHAL PAINTING

Humayun

He invited 2 Persian artists, Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdus Samad, who became his court painters.

Akbar

Organised painting in imperial karkhanas and also introduced European style.
Abdus Samad, Farrukh Beg, Khusro Kuli, Jamshed, Basawan, Daswanth, etc were the prominent painters.
Daswanth painted the Razm Namah (Persian Mahabharat).

Jahangir

Painting reached its zenith under Jahangir.
Special progress was made in portrait painting and painting of animals. Bishan Das was a master of portraits while -Ustad Mansur specialised in animal painting.
Use of 'Halo' or Divine Lights started under Jahangir.

MUGHAL LITERATURE

Khan Abdur Rahman translated Babur’s Tuzuk-I-Baburi from Turki to Persian during Akbar's reign.
Abul Fazal composed Ain-I-Akbari and Akbarnamah.
Abdul Qadir Badauni, who was in Akbar's court wrote: Kitab-ul-Ahadish, Tarikh-i-Alfi and Muntakhab-ul-Tawarikh.
Khwaja Nizamuddin Ahmad Harawi wrote Tabaqat-i-Akbari.
Jahangir composed his memoir, Mzuk-I-Jahangiri (in Persian language), and patronized the valuable dictionary, Farhang-I-Jahangiri.
During Jahangir's reign Hamid wrote Padshah Namah and Khafi Khan wrote Muntakhab-i-Lubab.
Dara was a great scholar. He translated Upanishads and Bhagvadgita. He also wrote Majm-ul-Bahrain.
Mirza Md. Qazim wrote Alamgirnama.
Ishwar Das Nagar wrote Fatuhat-i-Alamgiri.

COMMUNIAL AND REGIONAL UPRISINGS

THE SIKHS

Belong to a religious sect founded by Guru Nanak (1469-1539). His main teachings were the faith in one true Lord, the worship of the Name and the necessity of a Guru in the worship of the name.
After his death, Guru Angad (1539-52) became his successor. He invented the Gurumukhi script for the Punjabi Language.
Guru Amardas (1552-74) was the next guru. He reformed the institution of Langar and gave more importance to it. He divided his spiritual empire into 22 parts called Manjis. Each Manjis was put under the charge of a Sikh.
IV guru, Guru Ramdas (1575-81) had very cordial relations with Akbar. He laid the foundation of Amritsar city. He dug a tank (sarovar) and it exists at Amritsar. In the midst of the tank, the Harmandir Sahib (Temple of God) was constructed.
V guru, Guru Arjun Dev (1581-1606) compiled the Adi Granth. He also completed the construction of Amritsar and founded other cities like Taran Taran and Kartarpur. He was executed by Jahangir for helping his rebellious son, Khusro.
VI guru, Guru Har Govind Rai (1606-44) defeated a Mughal Army at Sangrama. He transformed the Sikhs into military community, estd. Akal Takhtat the Golden Temple and held court there to conduct secular matters. He himself took up the title of Sachcha Padshah. He also fortified Amritsar.
Guru Har Rai (1644-61) and Guru Har Kishan (1661-64) were the VII and VIII gurus respectively.
IX guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur (1664-75) revolted against Aurangzeb but was executed by him. He was beheaded at Delhi’s Chandni Chowk in November 1675. The Sis Ganj Gurudwara marks the site of his martyrdom.
X and last guru, Guru Gobind Singh (1675-1708) (born in Patna) organised Sikhs as a community of warriors and called them as Khalsa (Baisakhi day, 1699). He known as Panj Piaras. They took the water of immorality. The Sikhs were given a distinct dress and they were required to keep on their person five things beginning with K, viz., Kesh, Kripan, Kachha, Kanga and Kara. He compiled a supplementary granth called ‘Daswen Padshah ka Granth’. After the death of Aurangzeb, Guru Gobind Singh had cordial relations with his son. Bahadur Shah I. He even agreed to accompany the new king to Deccan. But the Guru was stabbed to death by a Pathan in 1708. At his death, he declared that henceforth, the Guru shall be in the Khalsa and the Khalsa in the Guru. He declared that from now on Granth Sahib should be treated as the Guru.

THE MARATHAS

Rose to prominence under Shivaji.
He was born to Shahji Bhonsle and Jijabai in 1627 at fortress of Shivner in Poona. Shahji was a military officer in the share of Bijapur and he owned the territory of Poona as a jagir.
He was highly impressed by his mother, Dadaji Kondadeo (his guardian), Guru Ramdas Samarth and Tuka Ram, both Bhakti saints.
From 1656, he started capturing many forts from the local officers of Bijapur.
Ali Adil Shah, sultan of Bijapur sent Afzal Khan to teach Shivaji a lesson in 1659. But Shivaji killed him in a meeting with his tiger claws.
Ultimately, in 1662, the Sultan of Bijapur made peace with Shivaji and acknowledged him as an independent ruler of his conquered territories.
Aurangzeb got worried by Shivaji’s extensive conquests. He sent Shaista Khan (Viceroy of Mughal Deccan) to kill him. Here again, in a daring manner, Shivaji attacked Shaista Khan’s camp in night, injuring him.
Then Aurangzeb sent Raja Jai Singh (of Amber) who forced him to sign the Treaty of Purandar in 1665. Under the treaty, Shivaji had to surrender 23 of his major forts out of the total 35 forts. Shivaji also agreed to help the Mughals in their attack of Bijapur.
Shivaji visited Agra with his son Sambhaji in 1666. There he was put on a house arrest. But he escaped from there, concealing in a basket of sweets.
He very soon conquered all the forts which he had surrendered to the Mughals.
He defeated a Mughal force in the Battle of Salher in 1672.
He was crowned in 1674 at Raigarh and assumed the title of Chhatrapati. He became the sovereign ruler of Maharashtra.
Unfortunately, Shivaji didn’t live long. He died in 1680 at the age of 53.

MARATHAS AFTER SHIVAJI

After Shivaji, his son Sambhaji (1680-89) succeeded throne (although a lot many supported his step-brother, Rajaram). He was a man of loose character and spent all his time in merry-making. When Aurangzeb was busy in his campaigns against Bijapur and Golconda, he and his followers did not take full advantage of the opportunity. When Sambhaji gave shelter to Aurangzeb's rebel son, Akbar he was executed and his infant son, Shivaji II, better known as Shahu, was taken captive by Aurangzeb.
Sambhaji was succeeded by Rajaram in 1689. Rajaram also lacked the qualities of his father. He was hardly ten when his father died and he was kept a prisoner by his brother Sambhaji. The result was that he failed to get the education which was necessary for his status. However, he was fortunate in having brilliant advisors and helpers. Initially, he was successful against the Mughals. But he was killed in 1700 when Aurangzeb himself conducted an expedition against him. After Raja Ram's death, his widow Tarabai put her infant son, Shivaji III on the throne.
After the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, the Mughals tried to divide the Marathas. Shahu was released by Aurangzeb's successor, Bahadur Shah I. now he claimed the government. His release led to the Maratha civil war between Shahu and Tarabai. In the civil war Shahu emerged victorious (Battle of Khed) with the help of Balaji Vishwanath, the founder of the line of Peshwas. After the battle, Tarabai retired to Kolhapur with her son.
In the reign of Shahu, the Peshwa or Prime Minister, Balaji Vishwanath, virtually became the ruler of the state. From now onwards began the rule of the Peshwas who had their seat of power at Poona. (Shahu's capital was Satara).
In all, there were seven Peshwas, namely

Balaji Vishwanath (1713-20)
Balaji Baji Rao 1 (1720-40)
Balaji Baji Rao (1740-61)
Madho Rao (1761-72)
Narayan Rao (1772-73)
Madho Rao Narayan (1773-95)
Baji Rao 11 (1795-1818)

Of these seven Peshwas, the ablest was Baji Rao I and the weakest and most incompetent was Baji Rao II.
Baji Rao II signed the Treaty of Bassein in 1802 with the British, which gave the British effective control of not only the Maratha region but also of the Deccan and western India.
Under Peshwas, Maratha kingdom transformed into an empire based on the principle of confederacy, in which prominent Maratha chiefs were assigned a territory as their `sphere of influence', which they were supposed to conquer on their own and which they can administer autonomously.
Consequently, several Maratha families became prominent in different parts of India:

Gaekwad in Baroda
Bhonsle at Nagpur
Holkar at Indore
Scindia at Gwalior
Peshwa at Poona.

MARATHA ADMINISTRATION

Besides the land revenue, Chauth or 1/4th land revenue was the main revenue.
Sardeshmukhi was an additional levy of 10% on those lands of Maharashtra over which the Marathas claimed hereditary rights, but which formed part of the Mughal Empire.
Shivaji was helped by 8 ministers or Ashta Pradhana

Peshwa or Mukhya Pradhan (Prime Minister)
Majumdar or Amatya (Finance Minister)
Mantri or Waqianavis (Personal safety of king)
Sachiva or Surunavis (In charge of royal secretariat)
Samant or Dabi• (Foreign Minister)
Senapati(Commander in Chief)
Pandit Rao (Chief Religious Advisor)
Nyayadhish (Administration of justice).

With the exception of Nyayadhish and Pandit Rao, all other ministers were required to command armies and lead expeditions.
Later, Rajaram created a new post of Pratinidhi, thus taking the total ministers to nine.

The Jats

First revolted in 1669 under Gokla.
Second uprising in 1685 under Rajaram and Churaman. After Aurangzeb's death, they set up separate Jat state at Bharatpur (Churaman and Badan Singh).
Suraj Mal (1756-63) took their state to glory. He is known as plato of the Jat tribe.

MYSORE

In the second half of the 18th century, the rise of Mysore under Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan and their alliance with the French, was seen as a danger to the British power in India.
Mysore emerged as a powerful throne under Haider Ali who became the king in 1761.
He used western military training to strengthen his army.
In the I Anglo-Mysore war (1767-1769), Haider Ali faced the triple alliance of the English, the Nizam and the Marathas. As Haider Ali was a great diplomat, he bought off the Marathas and won over the Nizam and thus broke the alliance. The war was brought to an end by signing of the Treaty of Madras (1769).
Hyder Ali died in 1782 during the 11 Anglo-Mysore war. His son Tipu Sultan carried on the war till 1784 when the two sides concluded peace by signing the Treaty of Mangalore.
Tipu planted a tree of liberty at Srirangapatnam. He employed French officers to train his army and showed a keen interest in French Revolution and became a member of the Jacobin Club.

He assumed the title of Padshah in 1797.
In the III Anglo-Mysore war (1789-1792), he was defeated by the triple alliance of British, Nizam and the Marathas and had to sign the Treaty of Srirangapatnam. By this treaty, Tipu ceded half of his territory to the English and paid a large amount as war indemnity.
He was defeated and killed in the IV Anglo-Mysore war (1799) by Lord Wellesley.

current affairs

Thursday, 13 November 2014

Medieval India

1 comment: