current affairs: Ancient India

INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION

The Indus valley civilization was an ancient civilization thriving along the Indus River and the Ghaggar-Hakra River in what is now Pakistan and north-western India. Among other name for this civilization is the Harappan Civilization in reference to its first excavated city of Harappan.

An alternative term for the culture is Saraswati-Sindhu Civilization, based on the fact that most of the Indus Valley sites have been found at the Halkra-Ghaggar River.

R.B. Dayaram Sahni first discovered Harappan (on Ravi) in 1921.
R.D. Banerjee discovered Mohenjodaro or ‘Mound of the Dead’ (on Indus) in 1922.
Sir John Marshal played a crucial role in both these.

Harappan Civilization forms part of the proto history of India and belongs to the bronze age. Mediterranean, Proto-Australiod, Mongoloids and Alpines formed the bulk of the population, through the first two were more numerous. More than 100 sites belonging to this civilization have been excavated.According to radio-carbon dating, it spread from the year 2500-1750 BC.Copper, bronze, silver, gold were known but not iron.

GEOGRAPHICAL EXTENT

Covered part of Punjab, Sindh, Baluchstan, Gujarat, Rajasthan and some parts of western UP. It extended from Manda in Jammu in the north to Daimbad in the south and from Alamgirpur in W.UP to Dutkagendor in Balcuhistan in the west.
Major sites in Pakistan are Harappan (on Ravi in W. Punjab), Mohenjodaro (on Indus), Chanhu-Daro (Sindh), etc. in India, Major sites are Lothal, Rangpur and Sukotda (Gujarat), Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Banwali (Hissar), and Alamgipur (Western UP).
Largest and the latest site in India is Dholavira in Gujarat. Dr. J.P. Joshi and Dr. R.S. Bisht were involved in it.

TOWN PLANNING

Elaborate town-plann ing. It followed the Grid System. Roads were well cut, dividing the town into large rectangular or square blocks. Lamp posts at intervals indicate the existence of street lighting. Flanking the streets, lanes and by-lanes were well-planned houses.
Used burnt bricks of good quality as the building material. Elsewhere in the contemporary world, mud-bricks were used.
Houses, often of two or more storey, varied in size, but were quite monotonous a square courtyard around which were a number of room. No window faced the streets. The houses had tiled bathrooms.
Good drainage system. Drains were made of mortar, lime and gypsum and covered with large brick slabs for easy cleaning. Shows developed sense of health and sanitation.
The towns were divided into 2 parts: Upper part of Citadel and Lower Part. The Citadel was an oblong artificial platform some 30-50 feet high and about 400-200 yards in area. It was enclosed by a thick (13 m at Harappan) crenelated mud-brick wall. In Citadel public buildings, granaries, important workshops and religious buildings were there. In lower part people used to live.
In Mohanjodaro, a big public bath (Greek Bath) measuring 12 m by 7 m and 2.4 m deep, has been found. Steps led from either end to the surface, with changing rooms alongside. It was probably used for ritual bathing.

EXCAVATIONS & EXCAVATORS

Chanhudaro	(on Indus)	1931	M.G. Majumdor
Sutkagendor	(on Dasak)	1927	Sir Aurel Stein
Kotdiji	(on Indus)	1955	Fazl Ahmed Khan
Ropar	(on Satluj)	1953	Y.D. Sharma
Banwali	(on Saraswati)	1973	R.S. Bisht
Lothal	(on Bhagwa)	1954	S.R. Rao
Rangpur	(on Mahar)	1931-53	M.S. Vats, B.B. Lal, S.R. Rao
Amri	(on Indus)	1929	N.G. Majumdor
Kalibangan	(on Ghaggar)	1961	B.B. Lal
Surkotda	--	1964	J.Joshi
Alamgirpur	(on Hindon)	1958	Y.D. Sharma

ECONOMIC LIFE

Agriculture

The Indus people sowed seeds in the flood plains in November, when the flood water receded, and reaped their harvests of wheat and barley in April, before the advent of the next flood .
Grew wheat, barley, rai, peas, sesamum, mustard, rice (in Lothal), cotton, dates, melon, etc. The Indus people were the first to produce cotton.
In Kalibangan, fields were ploughed with wooden ploughs
Domesticated animals on large scale. Besides the cattle, cats and dogs were domesticated. Horse wasn’t in regular use but elephant was. Remains of horse at Surkotda and dogs with men in grave at Ropar have been discovered.
Produced sufficient of feed themselves. Food grains were stored in granaries.

TRADE AND COMMERCE

Well-knit external and internal trade. There was no metallic money in circulation and trade was carried through Barter system.
Weights and measures of accuracy existed in Harappan culture (found at Lothal). The weights were made of limestone, steatite, etc and were generally cubical in shape.
16 was the unit of measurement (16, 64, 160, and 320).
Flint tool-work, shell-work, bangle making, pottery making, etc were practiced. Raw material for these came from different sources: gold from N. Karantaka, silver and lapis lazuli from Afghanistan and Iran, copper from Lothal. They were items for export.
A dockyard has been discovered at Lothal. Rangpur, Somnath and Balakot functioned as seaports. Sutkagendor and Sutkakoh functioned as outliers.
The inland transport was done with bullock carts.
Every merchant or mercantile family probably had a seal bearing an emblem, often of a religious character, and a name o brief descrition, on one side. The standard Harappan seal was a square or oblong plaque made of steatite stone. The primary purpose of the seal was probably to make the ownership of property, but they may have also served as amulets.
The mesopotamin records from about 2350 BC onwards refer to trade relations with Meluha, the ancient name of the Indus region. Harappan seals and other material has been found at Mesopotamia. Also traded with Sumer.

ART AND CRAFT

The harappan culture belongs to the Bronze Age.
Bronze was made by mixing tin and copper. Tools were mostly made of copper and bronze. For making bronze. For making bronze, copper was obtained from Khetri in Rajasthan and from Baluchistan, and tin form Afghanistan.
Cotton fabrics quite common. Woolen in winter.
Very fond of ornaments (of gold, silver, ivory, copper, bronze, precious stones) and dressing up. Ornaments were worn by both men and women. Women wore heavy bangles in profusion. Large necklaces, er-rings, bracelets, figure-rings, girdles, nose studs and anklets. The Harappan were also an expert bead makers.
Potter’s wheel was in use. Their pottery was red or black pottery. Played dice games. Their favourite pastime was Gambling.
The harappans’ most notable artistic achievement was their seal gravings, esp those of animals. The red sandstone torso of a man is particularly impressive for its realism. However, the most impressive of the figurines is perhaps the bronze image of the famous dancing girl (identified as devadasi), found at Mohenjodaro.
For their children, they made cattle-toys with movable heads, model monkeys which could slide down a string, little toy-carts, and whistles shapes like birds, all of terracotta.

RELIGIOUS LIFE

Main object of worship was the Mother Goddess. But the upper classes preferred a god, nude with two horns, much similar to Pasupati Siva. Represented on the seal is a figure with three horned heads in a yogic posture. He is surrounded by an elephants, a tiger and a rhicoceros, and below his throne is a buffalo. Near his feet are two deer. Pashupatinath represented male deity.
Phallus (lingam) and yoni worship was also prevalent.
Phallus trees (pipal), animals (bull), birds (dove, pigeon) and stones were worshipped. Unicorn was also worshipped. However, no temple has been found, though idolatry was practiced.
At Kalibangan and Lothal fire altars have been found.
Although no definite proof is a available with regard to the disposal of the dead, a broad view is that probably there were three methods of disposing the dead-complete burial, burial after exposure of the body to birds and beasts, and cremation followed by burial of the ashes. The discovery of cinerary urns and jars, goblets or vassels with ashes, bones and charcoal may, however, suggest that during the flourishing period of the Indus Valley culture the third methods was generally practiced. In Harappan, there is one place where evidence of coffin burial is there. The people probably believed in ghosts and evils spirts, as amulets were worn.
Dead bodies were placed in the north-south orientation.

SCRIPT

The script is not alphabetical but pictographic (about 600 undeciphered pictographs).
The script has not been deciphered so far, but overlaps of letters show that it was written from rights to left in the first line and left to right in the second line. This style is called ‘Boustrophedo.’

POLITICAL ORGANIZATION

There is no clear idea of the political organization of the Indus Valley people. Perhaps they were more concerned with commerce and they were possibly ruled by a class of merchants.
Also, there was an organization like a municipal corporation to look after the civic amenities of the people.

IMPORTANT HARAPPAN SITES

Harappa

Excavations at the site have led to following specific findings:

i) Tow rows of six granaries with brick platforms; 12 granaries together had the same area as the Great Granary at Mohenjodaro;

ii) Evidence of coffin burial and cemetery ‘H’ culture (two antelopes and the hunter on a postherd from a cemetery have been discovered);

iii) Single-room barrack;

iv) Evidence of direct trade interaction with Mesopotamia;

v) A red sandstone make torso;

vi) Stone symbols of female genitals.

Mohenjo-daro

Some of the specific findings during the excavations of Mohenjodaro include;

I. A college, a multi-pillared assembly hall;

II. The great bath (the most important public place of the city);

III. A large granary (the largest building of Mohenjodaro);

IV. A piece of women cotton along with spindle whorls and needles;

V. Superficial evidence of horse;

VI. A pot-stone fragment of Mesopotamian origin;

VII. Evidence of direct trade contact with Mesopotamia;

VIII. A bronze dancing girl;

IX. Evidence of violent death of some of the inhabitants (discovery of human skeletons put together) ;

X. A seal representing Mother Goddess with a plant growing from her womb, and a woman to be sacrificed by a man with a knife in his hand;

XI. A bearded man; and

XII. A seal with a picture suggesting Pashupai Mahadev.

KALIBANGAN

Kalibangan was an important Harappan city. The word ‘Kalibangan’ means ‘black bangles’. A ploughed field was the most important discovery of the early excavations.

Late excavation at Kalibangan made the following specific discoveries.

i) A wooden furrow;

ii) Seven fire-altars in a row on a platform, suggesting the practice of th cult of sacrifice;

iii) Remains of massive brick wall around both the citadel and the lower town (the second Harappan site after Lathal to have lower also walled);

iv) Bones of camel;

v) A tiled floor which bears intersecting design of circles;

vi) A human head with long oval eyes, thick lower lips, receding forehead and straight pointed nose; and

vii) Evidence of two types of burials; Burials in a circular grave and burials in a Rectangular grave

LOTHAL

Lothal was an important trade centre of Harappan culture, the town planning in Lothal was different from that of Harappan and Mohenjo-daro. The city was divided into six sections. Each section was built on a wide platform of unripe bricks. Each platform was separated by a road with width ranging from 12 feet to 20 feet. Excavations at Lothal led to some specific discoveries which include:

I. Remains of rice husk (the only other Harappan city where the rice husk has been found is Rangpur, near Ahmeadbad);

II. And artificial dockyard;

III. Evidence of horse from a doubtful terracotta figurine;

IV. Impressions of cloth on some of the seals;

V. Evidence of direct trade contact with Mesopotamia;

VI. Houses with entrances on the main street (the houses of all other Harappan cities had side entries);

VII. A ship designed on a seal;

VIII. A terracotta ship;

IX. A painting on a jar resembling the story of the cunning fox narrated in the Panchatantra;

X. Evidence of double burial (burying a male and a female in a single grave);

XI. Evidence of a game similar to modern day chess; and

XII. An instrument for measuring 180°, 90° and 45° angles (the instrument points to modern day compass).

Chanhu-daro

Excavations at Chanhu-daro have revealed three different cultural layers from lowest to the top being Indus culture, the Jhukar culture and the Jhangar culture. The site is specially important for providing evidences about different Harappan factories. These factories produced seals, toys and bone implements. It was the only Harappan city without a citadel. Some remarkable findings at Chanhu-daro include bronze figures of bullock cart and ekkas; a small pot suggesting an kinkwell, footprints of an elephant and a dog chasing a cat.

Alamgirpur

Alamgipur is considered the eastern boundary of the Indus culture. Although the wares found here resemble those at other Harappan sites, other findings suggest that Alamgirpur developed during late-Harappan culture. The site is remarkable for providing the impression of cloth on a trough.

Kot-Diji

Kot Diji is known more as a pre-Harappan site. It gives the impression of a pre-Harappan fortified settlement. Houses were made of stone. The remains of Kot-Diji suggest that the city existed in the first half of the third millennium BC. Excavations at the site suggest that the city was destructed by force.

Amri

Amri also gives evidences of a pre-Harappan settlement. However, it lacks the fortification plan of the pre-Harappan phase. A spectacular feature of Amri is that it gives the impression of existence of transitional culture between pre and post-harappan culture. Important findings at Amri include the actual remains of rhinceros; traces of Jhangar culture in late or declining Harappan phase and fire altars.

Ropar

Ropar is a Harappan site from where remains of pre-Harappan and Harappan cultures have been found. Buildings at Ropar were made mainly of stone and soil. Important findings at the site include pottery, omaments, copper axes, chert blades, terracotta blades, one inscribed steatite seal with typical Indus pictographs, several burials interred in oval pits, and a rectangular mud-brick chamber. There is also an evidence of burying a dog below the human burial (Though the practice was prevalent in Burzhom in Kashmir, it was rare in the Harappan context).

Banwall

Situated in Hissar district of Haryana, Banwali has provided two phases of culture during its excavations; the pre-Harappan (Phase 1) and the Harappan (Phase II). Though phase 11 belonged to the Harappan period, chess-board or grid pattern of town planning was not always followed as in other Harappan sites. The roads were neither always straight, nor did they cut at right angles. It also lacked another remarkable feature of the Harappan civilisation—a systematic drainage system. A high quality barley has been found in excavations. Other important material remains include ceramics, steatite seal and a few terracotta sealings with typical Indus script.

Surkotada

Situated in Kutch (Bhuj) district of Gujarat and excavated by J.P. Joshi in 1972, Surkotada was an important fortified Harappan settlement. The site is important particularly because it has provided the first actual remains of horse bones. A cemetery with four pot burials with some human bones has also been found. A grave has been found in association with a big rock, a rare finding of the Harappan culture.

Suktagendor

Suktagendor, situated in Sindh (Pakistan), was an important coastal town of the Indus civilisation. Excavations of Suktagendor have revealed a two-fold division of the township: the Citadel and the Lower City. It is said that Suktagendor was originally a port which later cut off from the sea due to coastal uplift.

END/DECAY

The Harappan culture lasted for around 1,000 years.

Invasion of the Aryans, recurrent floods, social breakup of Harappans, Earthquakes, etc are listed as possible causes.

VEDIC PERIOD: THE ARYANS

Many historians have given various theories regarding the original place of the Aryans. However, the Central Asian theory, given by Max Muller, is the most accepted one. It states that the Aryans were semi-nomadic pastoral people and originated from area around the Caspian Sea in Central Asia.
Entered India probably through the Khyber Pass (in Hindukush Mountains) around 1500 BC.
The holy book of Iran ‘Zend Avesta’ indicates entry of Aryans to India via Iran.

EARLY VEDIC OR RIGVEDIC PERIOD

REGION

The early Aryans settled in Eastern Afghanistan, modem Pakistan, Punjab and parts of western UP The whole region in which the Aryans first settled in India is called the 'Land of Seven Rivers or Sapta Sindhava' (The Indus and its five tributaries and the Saraswati).

POLITICAL ORGANIZATION

Monarchial form, tribe was known as Jan and its king as Rajan. He was the leader in battle and protector of tribe. His office was not hereditary and was selected among the clan's men. The rajan was not an absolute monarch, for the government of the tribe was in part the responsibility of the tribal councils like sabha, samiti, gang and vidhata. Even women attended sabha and vidhata.
Many clans (Nish) formed a tribe. The basic social unit was the Kula or the family and Kulapa was the head of the family
The king was assisted by a number of officers of which purohita was the most important. Next important functionary was the Senani (leader of the army), although there was no regular or standing army. The military technique of the early Aryans was much advanced. The Aryans succeeded everywhere because they possessed chariots driven by horses.
There was no regular revenue system and the kingdom was maintained by the voluntary tribute (Bali) of his subjects and the booty won in battle.
Villages were headed by Gramini who used to represent village in sabha and samiti. Later, Gramini was handed over the charge of Vrajapati also (an officer who enjoyed authority over the pasture ground).

SOCIAL LIFE

When the Aryans entered India there was already a class division in their tribal structure. As they settled among the dark aboriginals, the Aryans seem to have laid greater stress than before on purity of blood, and class divisions hardened, to exclude those dasmi who had found a place in the Aryan society, and those Aryans who had intermarried with the dasas and adopted their ways. Gradually, the tribal society got divided into three groups—warriors, priests and commoners. Later, the fourth—dasas or shudra – was also added.
The term varna was used for color, the Aryans being fair, the dasas dark.
Family was the basic unit of society. The family was patriarchal in nature. But women enjoyed equal power with men. Marriage was usually monogamous and indissoluble, but there are few instances of polyandry, levitate and widow-marriage. There are no examples of child-marriage. The marriageable age seems to have been 16 to 17.
The word Arya'came to refer to any person who was respected.
Aryans were fond of soma, sura, food and dresses. Soma was drunk at sacrifices and its use was sanctified by religion. Sura was purely secular and more potent, and was diapproved by the priestly poets.
The Aryans loved music, and played the flute, lute and harp. There are references to singing and dancing, and to dancing girls. People also delighted in gambling. They enjoyed chariot racing. Both men and women wore ornaments.

RIVERS IN RIG VEDA

Modern Name	Rigvedic Names
Indus	Sindhu
Jhelum	Vitasta
Chenob	Asikni
Ravi	Purushni
Beas	Vipasa
Sutlej	Sutudri
Gomati	Gumal
Kurram	Krumu
Ghaggar	Drisshadvati

Þ Besides these rivers with specific names, the Rigvedo also mentions Ganga, Yamuna, Sarasvati and other rivers.

ECONOMIC

Their bronze smiths were highly skilled, and produced tools and weapons much superior to those of Harappan culture. There were artisans like carpenters, weavers, cobblers, potters, etc.
Aryans followed a mixed economy – pastoral and agricultural – in which cattle played a predominant part.
Most of their wars were fought for cow (most important form of wealth). Cattle were in fact a sort of currency, and values were reckoned in heads of cattle (man's life was equivalent to that of 100 cows), but they were not held sacred at this time. The horse was almost as important as the tour.
Standard unit of exchange was cow. At the same time coins were also there (gold coins like Nishka, Krishnal and Satmana).
Gavyuti was used as a measure of distance and Godhuli as a measure of time.
Lived in fortified mud settlements.
Physicians were there called ‘Bhishakas’.
The staple crop was ‘Yava’ which meant barley

RELIGION

The Aryans personified the natural forces and looked upon them as living beings.
The most important divinity was Indra who played the role of warlord (breaker of forts—Purandar, also associated with storm and thunder).
The second position was held by Agni (fire-god). He is considered as an intermediary between gods and men.
Varuna occupied the third position. He personified water and was supposed to uphold the natural order. He was ethnically the highest of all Rigvedic gods.
Soma was considered to be the god of plants. Maruts personified the storms. Some female deities are also mentioned, like Aditi and Usha, who represented the appearance of dawn.
Didn't believe in erecting temples or idol worship. Worshipped in open air through yajnas.

LATER VEDIC PERIOD (Painted Grey Ware Phase)

REGION

They reveal that the Aryans expanded from Punjab over the whole of western Punjab over the whole of western UP covered by the Ganga-Yamuna doab.
In the beginning, they cleared the land by burning; later with the use of iron tools which became common by 1000-800 BC.

POLITICAL ORGANIZATION

Tiny tribal settlements were replaced by strong kingdoms.
Powers of the king, who was called Samrat increased. Importance of assemblies declined. Women were no longer permitted to attend assemblies. The term 'rashtra' indicating territory first appeared in this period.
A regular army was maintained for the protection of kingdom.
References of Priest (Purohita), Commander in chief (Senapatil, Charioteer (Suta), treasurer (Sangrahita), tax collector (Bhagdugha), chief queen (Mahisi) and the game companion (aksavapa).

SOCIAL LIFE

The four fold division of society became clear- initially based on occupation, which later became hereditary: Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (Warriors), Vaishyas (agriculturists, cattle-rearers, traders) and Shudras (servers of the upper three).
Women enjoyed freedom and respect but their status deteriorated compared to earlier time.
The institution of gotra appeared in this age first time. Gotra signified descent from common ancestors.
In this time also, Chariot racing was the main sport and gambling was the main pastime.

Types of Marriages

v Brahma: Marriage of a duly dowered girl too man of the same class.

v Daiva: Marriage in which a father gave his daughter too sacrificial priest as part of his fees.

v Arsa: Marriage in which a token bride-price of a cow and a bull was paid to the daughter’s father.

v Projapotya: Marriage in which the father gave the girl without dowry and without demanding bride-price.

v Gandharvo: Marriage, often clandestine, by the consent of the two parties.

v Asuro: Marriage by purchase.

v Rakshasa: Marriage by capture.

v Paishacho: Marriage involving the seduction of a girl while sleeping, etc.

Þ Anuloma marriage was the marriage of a higher varna man with a lower woman.

Þ Pratilama marriage was the marriage of a lower varna man with a higher varna woman.

Important Vedic Rituals

v Asvamedha: A king performed this sacrifice, which meant control over the area in which the royal horse ran uninterrupted. The ceremony lasted for three days at the end of which the horse sacrifice was performed.

v Vajapeya: A chariot race was performed in which the king must win the race (it was fixed). It was meant to re-establish a king's supremacy over his people.

v Raiasuya: A sacrifice ceremony which conferred supreme power on the king.

POTTERY

The later Vedic people used four types of pottery—black and red ware, black-slipped ware, painted grey ware and red ware.
Red ware was most popular with them, and has been found almost all over western UP However, the most distinctive pottery of the period is known as Painted Grey Ware, which comprised bowls and dishes, used either for rituals or for eating by the upper classes.

RELIGION

Rituals and formulae became prominent in the cult of sacrifice.
Indra and Agni lost their importance. Prajapati (the creator) became supreme. Vishnu came to be conceived as the preserver and protector of the people.
Some of the social orders came to have their own deities, e.g., Pushan, responsible for well being of the cattle, became the god of the shudras.
Towards the end of the period, began a strong reaction against sacrificial cults and rituals with the composition of the Upanishads, which valued right belief and knowledge more than anything else.

THE VEDIC LITERATURE

THE VEDAS

The word ‘veds’ comes from the root ‘vidi’ signifying knowledge.

Vedas are also known as 'shrub' (to hear) as they were passed from generation to generation through verbal transmission.

They are four in all – Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda.

The first three vedas are collectively known as ‘Trayi’ or ‘trio’. Each veda is further divided into Samhitas.

(a) RIG VEDA

Oldest religious text in the world.

Must have been composed around 1700 BC.

A collection of hymns. Were recited at the time of sacrificial rites and other rituals with utmost devotion.

Contains 1028 hymns (1017 + 11 valakhilyas) and is divided into 10 mandalas.

II to VII are the earliest mandalas, each of which is ascribed to a particular family of seers (rishis) – Gritsamada, Visvamitra, Vamadeva, Atri, Bharadvaj, and Vashistha. VIII mandala is ascribed to the Kanvas and Angiras. IX is the compilation of Soma hymns. I and X are considered the later additions.

The X mandala contains the famous Purushsukta which explains that the 4 varnas (Brahmans, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra) were born from the mouth, arms, thighs and feet of the creator, Brahma.

Words in Rig Veda: Om (1028 times), Jan (275 times), etc. 250 hymns are dedicated to Indra while 200 are dedicated to Agni.

The third mandala contains the Gayatri Mantra (addressed to sun).Saraswati is the deity river in Rig Veda.

(b) SAMA VEDA

Derived from the root ‘Saman’, i.e., ‘melody’. It is a collection of melodies.

It has 1603 verses but except 99 all the rest have been borrowed from Rig Veda.

Contains ‘Dhrupada Raga’.

Deals with the procedure for the performance of sacrifices.

There are two main texts of Yajurveda: White Yajurveda (or Shukla Yajurveda) and Black Yajurveda (or Krishna Yajurveda). The former contains mantras and the latter has commentary in prose.

(d) ATHARVA VEDA

Entirely different from other 3 vedas.

Divided into 20 kandas (books) and has 711 hymns – mostly dealing with magic (along with personal problems of people).

THE BRAHMANAS

They explain the hymns of the vedas in an orthodox manner.

Each veda has several Brahmanas attached to it.

Rigveda: Kaushetki and Aitreya
Yajurveda: Taitriya & Shatpatha
Samveda: Panchvish & Jemineya
Atharvaveda: Gopath

The most important is 'Shatapatha Brahmana' attached to Yajurveda, which is most exhaustive and important of all. It recommends 'One hundred Sacred Paths'.

THE ARANYAKAS

Cafled 'forest books', written mainly by the hermits living in the jungles for their pupils.

These are the concluding portions of the Brahmanas.

Deals with mysticism and philosophy. Opposed to sacrifice and emphasize 'Meditation'.

Form a bridge between 'Way of work' (Karma Marg) which was the sole concern of the Upanishads and the 'Way of knowledge' (Gyan Marg) which the Brahmanas advocated.

THE UPANISHADS

The word means ‘to sit down near someone’ and denotes a student sitting near his guru to learn.

Called Vedanta (the end of the vedas) firstly because they denote the last phase of the Vedic Period and secondly, because they reveal the final aim of the vedas.

They are the main source of Indian philosophy

There are 108 Upanishads.

They also condemn the ceremonies and the sacrifices.

They discuss the various theories of creation of the universe and define the doctrine of action (Karma).

SMRITIS

Explains rules and regulations in the Vedic life.

Main are Manusmriti, Naradsmriti, Yagyavalkyasmriti and Parasharsmriti.

VEDANGAS

Six Vedangas are Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chhanda and Jyotisha.

§ Shiksha deals with pronunciation.

§ Kalpa with rituals.

§ Vyakarana with grammar.

§ Nirukta with etymology.

§ Chhanda with meter.

§ Jyotisha with astronomy.

DARSHANS

There are 6 schools of Indian philosophy known as Shad-Darshana.

These are given by 6 philosophers of Ancient India:

§ Nyaya (Analysis) Darshana: Gautama.

§ Vaishesika Darshana: Kanada Rishi (referred atom as kan/anu).

§ Sankhaya Darshana: Kapila

§ Yoga Dars ana: Patanjali.

§ Purva Mimansa: Jaimini

§ Uttara Mimansa: Badaryana or Vyasa (wrote Mahabharata, classified vedas, composed the puranas and also gave vedantic philosophy).

UPAVEDAS

There are four upavedas:

§ Dhanurveda (deals with art of warfare) (Upaveda of Yajur Veda).

§ Gandharvaveda (deals with art & music) (Upaveda of Sama Veda).

§ Shilpaveda (deals with architecture) (Upaveda of Atharva Veda).

§ Ayurveda (deals with medicine) (Upaveda of Rig Veda).

EPICS

Though the two epics — the Mahabharata and the Ramayana — were compiled later, they reflect the state of affairs of the Later Vedic Period.

§ The Mahabharata, attributed to Vyasa, is considered older than the Ramayana and describes the period from the tenth century BC to the fourth century AD. It is also called Jaisamhita and Satasahasri Samhita and has one lakh verses.

§ The Ramayana, attributed to Valmiki, has 24,000 verses. Its composition started in the fifth century BC and passes through five stages; the fifth stage ended in the twelfth century AD.

RISE OF BRAHMANISM

Value of Brahmins increased as they only could perform religious ceremonies.
Led to religious monopoly.
Puranas or old stories (18 in no.) contain the popular myths of these times.
People revolted against this.

The Mahajanapadas

Mahajanapadas

Mahajanapadas		Capital	Present Day Location
1.	Koshi	Varanasi	Around Varanasi
2.	Kosolo	Shrovosti	Eastern UP
3.	Anga	Champonagri	Bhogol and Munger distts. of Bihar
4.	Mogodh	Girivraj or Rajgriha	Patna and Goya distt
5.	Vojji	Vaishali	Vaisholi distt of Bihar
6.	Mallo	Kushinagar and Pavapuri	South of Vaisholi dish
7.	Chedi	Shuktimati	Eastern ports of modern Bundelkhand
8.	Votso	Kaushambi	Around modern Allahobod
9.	Kuru	Hastinapur, Indraprastha and Isulkara	Around the Delhi-Meerut region
10.	Panchol	Ahichhatra and Kampilya	Rohilkhond
11.	Matsyc	Viratnagar	Joipur-Bhorotpur-Alwor distts
12.	Surosen	Mathura	Mothuro region
13.	Assoko	Paudanya	Near Paithan in Maharashtra
14.	Avonti	Ujjaini	Ujjoin distt
15.	Gandharo	Taxila	Between Kabul and Rawalpindi
16.	Kamboj	Rajpur	Punchh area in Kashmir

In the sixth century BC onwards, the widespread use of iron in eastern UP and western Bihar created conditions for the formation of large territorial States.
The new agricultural tools and implements enabled the peasants to produce more; and the extra product was collected by Princes to meet military and administrative needs.
With this, Uanapadas' started making `Mahajanpadas'. The land between Himalayas & Narmada was divided into 16 independent states (MAHAJANPADAS).

GROWTH OF BUDDHISM & JAINISM

CAUSES OF NEW MOVEMENT

The Vedic rituals were expensive & the sacrifices prescribed were very complicated & had lost their meaning.
The caste system had become rigid (both Buddhism & Jainism offered them an honored place).
Supremacy of Brahmins created unrest.
All the religious text was in Sanskrit, which was not understandable to the masses.

BUDDHISM

Buddhism stands for 3 pillars:

§ Buddha: Its Founder

§ Dhamma: His Teachings

§ Sangha: Order of Buddhist monks and nuns.

THE BUDDHA

Also known as Sakyamuni or Tathagata.
Born in 563 BC on the Vaishakha Poornima Day at Lumbini (near Kapilavastu) in Nepal.
His father Suddhodana was the Saka ruler.
His mother (Mahamaya, of Kosala dynasty) died after 7 days of his birth. Brought up by stepmother Gautami.
Married at 16 to Yoshodhara. Enjoyed the married life for 13 years and had a son named Rahula.
After seeing an old man, a sick man, a corpse and an ascetic, he decided to become a wanderer.
Left his palace at 29 (with Channa, the charioteer and his favourite horse, Kanthaka) in search of truth (also called ‘Mahabhinishkramana' or The Great Renunciation) and wandered for 6 years.
He first meditated with Alara Kalama. But he was not convinced that man could obtain liberation from sorrow by mental discipline and knowledge. His next teacher was Udraka Ramputra. He then joined forces with five ascetics - Kondana, Vappa, Bhadiya, Mahanama and Assagi, who were practicing the most rigorous self-mortification in the hope of wearing away their karma and obtaining final bliss.
For six years he tortured himself until he was nothing but a walking skeleton. But after six years, he felt that his fasts and penance had been useless. So he abandoned these things. The five disciples also left him.
Attained 'Nirvana' or 'Enlightenment' at 35 at Gaya in Magadha (Bihar) under the Pipal tree.
Delivered the first sermon at Samath where his five disciples had settled. His first sermon is called Dharrnachakrapravartan' or 'Miming of the Wheel of Law.
Attained Mahaparinirvana at Kushinagar (identical with village Kasia in Deoria district of UP) in 483 BC at the age of 80 in the Malla republic.

(1) THE FOUR GREAT TRUTHS

The world is full of sorrow and misery.
The cause of all pain and misery is desire.
Pain and misery can be ended by killing or controlling desire.
Desire can be controlled by following the Eight Fold Path.

(2) THE EIGHT FOLD PATH

Consists of: Right Faith, Right Thought, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Efforts, Right Speech, Right Remembrance and Right Concentration

(3) BELIEF IN NIRVANA

When desire ceases, rebirth ceases and nirvana is attained i.e. freedom from the cycle of birth, death and rebirth is gained by following the 8-fold path.
According to Buddha, soul is a myth.

(4) BELIEF IN AHIMSA

One should not cause injury to any living being, animal or man.

(5) LAW OF KARMA

Man reaps the fruits of his past deeds.

THE SANGHA

Consists of monks (Bhikshus or Shramanas) and nuns.
Bhikshus acted as a torch bearer of the dhamma.
Apart from Sangha, the worshippers were called Upasakas.

BUDDHIST COUNCILS

The monks gathered 4 times after the death of Buddha and the effect of these events had their effect on Buddhism.

§ FIRST COUNCIL: At Rajgriha, in 483 BC under the chairman ship of Mehakassaapa (King was Ajatshatru). Divided the teachings of Buddha into two Pitakas – Vinaya Pitaka and Sutta Pitaka. Upali recited the Vinaya Pitaka and Ananda recited the Sutta Pitaka.

§ SECOND COUNCIL: At Vaishali, in 383 BC under Sabakami (King was Kalasoka). Followers divided into Sthavirmadins and Mahasanghikas.

§ THIRD COUNCIL: At Pataliputra, in 250 BC under Mogaliputta Tissa (King was Ashoka). In this, the third part of the Tripitaka was coded in the Pali language.

§ FOURTH COUNCIL: At Kashmir (Kundalvan), in 72 AD under Vasumitra (King was Kanishka). Vice-Chairman was Ashwaghosha). Divided Buddhism into Mahayana and Hinayana sects.

Notes:

In Mahayana, idol worship is there. It became popular in China, Japan, Korea. Afghanistan, Turkey and other SE countries. Hinayana became popular in Magadha and SriLanka. It believed in individual salvation and not in idol-worship. Apart from these 2, there is a third vehicle, called Taftayana', which appeared in 8th century and grew rapidly in Bihar and Bengal. They did not treat meat, fish, wine, etc, as a taboo in dietary habit and freely consumed them.

BUDDIST LITERATURE

In Pali language.
Buddhist scriptures in Pali are commonly referred to as Tripitakas, Threefold Basket.

VINAYA PITAKA

Rules of discipline in Buddhist monasteries.

CAUSES OF DECLINE OF BUDDHISM

§ It succumbed to the Brahmanic rituals and ceremonies, such as idol worship, etc, which Buddhism had earlier denounced.

§ Revival of reformed Hinduism with the preaching of Shankaracharya from ninth century onwards.

§ Use of Sanskrit, the language of intellectuals, in place of Pali, the language of the common people.

§ Deterioration in the moral standards among the monks living in Buddhist monasteries.

§ Entry of women into Buddhist monasteries.

§ Attacks of Huna king Mihirkula in the sixth century and the Turkish invaders in the twelfth century AD.

Jainism

Founded by Rishabhanth.
There were 24 tirthankaras (Prophets or Gurus), all Kshatriyas. First was Rishabhanath (Emblem: Bull). His reference is also in Rigveda. But there is no historical basis for the first 22 Tirthankaras. Only the last two Tirthankaras are historical personalities.
The 23^rd Thirthankar Parshwanath (Emblem: Snake) was the son of King Ashvasena of Banaras. His main teachings were: Non-injury, Non-lying, Non-stealing, Non-possession.
The 24^th and the last Tirthankar was Vardhman Mahavira (Emblem: Lion).

VAROHMAN MAHAVIRA

He was born in Kundagram (Distt Muzafffarpur, Bihar) in 599 BC.
His father Siddhartha was the head of Jnatrika clan. His mother was Trishla, sister of Lichchavi Prince Chetak of Vaishali.
Mahavira was related to Bimbisara.
Married to Yashoda, had a daughter named Priyadarsena, whose husband Jamali became his first disciple.
At 30, after the death of his parents, he became an ascetic.

In the 13th year of his asceticism (on the 10th of Vaishakha), outside the town of Jrimbhikgrama, he attained supreme knowledge (Kaivalya).

From now on he was called Jaina or Jitendriya and Mahavira, and his followers were named Jains. He also got the title of Arihant, i.e., worthy

At the age of 72, he attained death at Pava, near Patna, in 527 BC.

Mahavira preached almost the same message as Parshvanath and added one more, Brahmcharya (celibacy) to it.

After the death of Mahavira, during the reign of King Chandragupta Maurya, a severe famine led to a great exodus of Jain monks from the Ganga valley to the Deccan, where they established important centers of their faith. This migration led to a great schism in Jainism. Bhadrabahu, who led the emigrants, insisted on the retention of the rule of nudity which Mahavira had established. Sthulabhadra, the leader of the monks who remained in the north, allowed his followers to wear white garments, owing to the hardships and confusions of the famine. Hence arose the two sects of the Jains, the Digambaras (sky-clad, i.e., naked) and the Svetambaras (white-clad).

TEACHINGS OF MAHAVIRA

Rejected the authority of the Vedas and do not attach any importance to the performance of sacrifices.
He believed that every object, even the smallest particle, possesses a soul and is endowed with consciousness. That is why they observe strict non-violence.
The Jains reject the concept of a Universal Soul or a Supreme Power as the creator or Sustainer of the universe.
Jainism does not deny the existence of gods but refuses to give gods any important part in the universe scheme. Gods are placed lower than the Jina.
Attainment of salvation (moksha) by believing in penance and dying of starvation (MAIN DIFFERENCE between Jainism and Buddhism).
Universal brotherhood (non-belief in caste system).

Note:

§ In Jainism, three Ratnas (Triratnas) are given and they are called the way to Nirvana. They are Right Faith, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct.

JAIN COUNCILS

First Council: Held at Pataliputra by Sthulabhadra in the beginning of third century BC. It resulted in the compilation of 12 Angas to replace 14 Purvas.

Second Council: It was held at Vallabhi (Gujarat) in the fifth century AD under the leadership of Devridhigani. It resulted in final compilation of 12Angas and 12 Upangas.

OTHER POINTS

Jainism reached the highest point in Chandragupta Maurya's time. In Kalinga, it was greatly patronized by Kharavela in the first century AD.
Various factors were responsible for the decline of Jainism in India. They took the concept of Ahimsa too far. They advised that one should not take medicine when one fell sick because the medicine killed germs. They believed that there was life in trees and vegetables and so refrained from harming them. Such practices could not become popular with common man. There was moreover no patronage from the later kings.
Jain literature is in Ardh-Magadhi and Prakrit dialects.
Due to the influence of Jainism, many regional languages emerged out, like Sauraseni, out of which grew the Marathi, Gujarati, Rajasthani and Kannada.

MAGADHA EMPIREA

PERIOD

6th Century — 4th Century BC.

EXTENT

Magadha embraced the former districts of Patna, Gaya & parts of Shahabad, & grew to be the leading state of the time.

HARYANKA DYNASTY

Originally founded in 566 BC by the grand father of Bimbisara, but actual foundation by Bimbisara.

BIMBISARA (544 BC-492 BC)

Contemporary of Buddha.
He conquered Anga (E.Bihar) to gain control over trade route with the southern states.
His capital was Rajgir (Girivraja). He strengthened his position by matrimonial alliance with the ruling families of Kosala, Vaishah, and Madra (3 wives).
His capital was surrounded by 5 hills, the openings in which were closed by stone walls on all sides. This made Rajgir impregnable.

AJATSHATRU (492 BC — 460 BC)

Son of Bimbisara, killed his father & seized the throne.
Annexed Vaishali and Kosala (annexed Vaishali with the help of a war engine, which was used to throw stones like catapults. Also possessed a chariot to which a mace was attached, thus facilitating mass killings). Kosala was ruled by Prasenajit at that time.
Buddha died during his reign; arranged the first Buddhist Council.

UDAYIN (460 — 444 BC)

He founded the new capital at Pataliputra, situated at the confluence of the Ganga & Son.

SHISHUNAGA DYNASTY

Founded by a minister Shishunaga. He was succeeded by Kalasoka (II Buddhist council). Dynasty lasted for two generations only
Greatest achievement was the destruction of power of Avanti.

NANDA DYNASTY

· It is considered first of the non-Kshatriya dysasties.

· Founder was Mahapadma Nanda. He added Kalinga to his empire. He claimed to be the ekarat, the sole sovereign who destroyed all the other ruling princes.

· Alexander attacked India in their reign. Dhana Nanda was there at that time.

· Nandas were fabulously rich & enormously powerful. Maintained 200,000 infantry, 60,000 cavalry & 6,000 were elephants. This is supposed to have checked Alexander’s army from advancing towards Magadha.

CAUSES OF MAGADHA’A SUCCESS

· Enjoyed advantageous geographical position, i.e., near richest iron deposits (thus effective weapons).

· The 2 capitals of Magadha, Rajgir and Pathliputra, were situated at very strategic points.

· Fertile soil of the lower Ganga regions.

· First used elephants in wars.

· Note:

· Archaeologically, 6th century BC marks the beginning of NBPW phase (Northern Black Polished Ware) which was very glossy, Shinning type of pottery. This marked the beginning of Second Urbanization in India.

Alexander (356 BC-323 BC) was the son of Philip of Macedonia (Greece) who invaded India in 326 BC. At that time NW India was split up into a number of small independent states like Taxila, Punjab (Kingdom of Porus), Gandhara etc. Except Porus who fought the famous battle of Hydaspas (on banks of Jhelum) with Alexender, all other kingdom submitted meekly.

When Alexender reached Bease, his soliders refused to go further, so he was forced to retreat. To mark the farthest point of his advance, he erected 12 huge stones altras on the northern bank of Beas. Remained in India for 19 months and died in 323 BC at Babylon.

The effects of Alexender’s invasion were indirect:

§ It exposed India to Europe, by opening up four distinct lines of communication, three by land and one by sea.

§ Due to cultural contact, a cosmopolitan school of art came up in Gandhara.

§ Paved the way for the unification of north India under Chandragupta Maurya by weakening small states.

Chandragupta maurya (322-297 BC)

· With the help of Chanakya, known as Kautilya or Vishnugupta, he overthrew the Nandas & established the rule of the Maurya dynasty.

· Chandragupta is called Sandrocottus by the Greek scholars.

· Seleucus Necater was one of the generals of Alexander and after his death, has succeeded in gaining control of most of the Asiatic provinces. Chandragupta defeated him in 305 BC and was compelled to yield parts of Afghanistan to Chandragupta. There was also a marriage alliance between the two families.

· Built a vast empire, which included not only good portions of Bihar and Bengal, but also western and north western India and the Deccan.

· This account is given by Megasthenes (A Greek ambassador sent by Seleucus to the court of Chandragupta Maurgya) in his book Indica. We also get the details from the Arthashastra of Kautilya.

· Chandragupta adopted Jainism and went to Sravanabelagola (near Mysore) with Bhadrabahu, where he died by slow starvation.

· Vishankhadatta wrote a drama Mudhrarakshasa (describing Chandragupta’s enemy) & Debi Chandragupta in sixth century AD.

BINDUSARA (297-273)

· Called Amitraghat by Greek writers.

· Chandragupta was succeeded by his son Bindusara in 297 BC. He is said to have conquered the land bwtween the 2 seas, i.e., the Arabian Sea & Bay of Bengal. At the time of his death, almost the entire subcontinent came under the Mauryan rule. Greek Ambassador, deimachos visited his court.

ASHOKA (269-232 BC)

· Ashoka was appointed the Viceroy of Taxila and Ujjain by his father, Bindusara. He was at Ujjain when Bindusara, died. His formal coronation was delayed for four years, suggestion a disputed succession. A Buddhist literature says that he came to throne after killing his 99 brothers.

· Regarded as one of the greatest kings of all times. He was the first ruler to maintain direct contact with people through his inscription.

· In his inscriptions following languages have been used:

· Brahmi, Kharoshthi, Armaic and Greek. (James Princep first deciphered the inscription).

· Ashoka became the Buddhist under Upagupta.

EXTENT OF EMPIRE

· His empire covered the whole territory from Hindukush to Bangal & extended over Afghanistan, Baluchistan & whole of India with the exception of a small area in the farthest south. Kashmir and Valleys of Nepal were also included, first empire to do so.

THE KALINGA WAR (261 BC, mentioned in XIII rock edict)

· It changed his attitude towards life. Ashoka became a Buddhist after that.

ASPECTS OF ASHOKA’S REIGN

· Ashok’s empire was divided into provinces with a viceroy in each province. He established Dhramshalas, hospitals and Sarasi throughout his kingdom.

· He organized a network of missionaries to preach the doctrine both in his kingdom and beyond. He sent them to Ceylon, Burma (sent his son Mahindra & daughter Sanghamitra of Ceylon) and other south-east Asian regions, notably Thailand.

· Ashoka is called “Buddashakya & Ashoka in Maskiedict and Dharmasoka in Sarnath inscription. He was also known as ‘Devanaypiya’- beloved of the gods, and ‘Piyadassi’- of pleasing appearance.

SIGNIFICANCE OF MAURYAN RULE

· The emblem of the Indian Republic has been adopted from the 4-lion capital of the Ashokan pillar at Sarnath.

· Gurukuls & Buddhist monasteries developed with royal patronage. Universities of Taxila & Banaras are the gifts of this era.

· Kautilyas’ Athashastra, Bhadrabahu’s Kalpa Sutra, Buddhist texts like the Katha Vatthu & Jain texts such as Bhagwati Sutra, Acharanga Sutra and Sasavakalik comprise some of the important literature of this era.

CAUSE OF THE FALL OF MAURYAN EMPIRE

· Ashoka’s patronage of Buddhist and his anti-sacrificial attitude is said to have affected the income of the Brahmins. So they developed antipathy against Ashoka.

· Revenue from agrarian areas was not sufficient to maintain such a vast empire as booty from war was negligible.

· Successors of Ashoka were took weak to keep together such a larege centralized empire.

· Note:

· The last Mauryan king Brihadratha was killed by Pushyamitra Shunga (Commander in Chief) in 185 BC, who started the Shunga dynasty in Magadha.

In eastern India, central India & the Deccan, the Mauryas were succeeded by anumber of native rulers such as the Shungas, the Kanvas & the Satavahanas. In N.W. India, they were succeeded by a no. of ruling dynasties from central Asia.

1. THE INDO- GREEKS

A number of invasions took place around 200 BC. The first to invade India were the Greeks, who were also called the indo-Greek or Bactrian Greeks (Because they ruled Bactria). It is said they pushed forward as far as Ayodhya and Pataliputra.

The most famous Indo-Greekruler was Menander (165-145 BC), also known as Milinda. He had his capital at Sakala (modern Sialkot) in Punjab.

He was converted into Buddhism by Nagasena. The conversation between the two has been described in the Pali text, Milinda Panho or ‘The Question of Milinda’

Greeks were the first to issue coins which can be definitely attributed to the kings, and also the first to issue gold coins in India.

The also introduced the practice of military governorship. The governors were called ‘Strategos’.

The Greek rule introduced features of Hellenistic art in the north-west frontier of India. Gandhara art was its best example.

The term ‘Horshastra, used for astrology in Sanskrit is derived from the Greek term ‘Horoscrope’.

2. The shakas or Scythians (90 BC)

The Greek were followed by the Shakas, who controlled a larger part of India than the Greek did.

There were 5 branches of the Shakas with their seats of power in different parts of India and Afghanistan.

KINGDOMS AFTER THE MAURYAS

THE SUNGA DYNASTY

Pushyamitra founded this dynasty. His dominions extended to South as far as the Narmada river & included cities of Pataliputra, Ayodhya & Vidisha. He performed two Ashwamedha sacrifices. He also defeated the Bactrian king, Dematrius.

· The fifth king was Bhagabhadra, to whose court Heliodoros, the Greek ambassador visited.

· A Shunga king, Agnimitra was the hero of Kalidasa's Malavikagnimitram.

· They were basically Brahmins. This period saw the revival of Bhagvatism.

· Pataniali's classic Mahabhashya was written at this time.

THE KANVA DYNASTY

· The founder of this short-lived dynasty was Vasudeva, who killed the last Sunga king, Devabhuti.

· They were swept away by Satavahanas of the Deccan.

THE CHETIS OF KALINGA

· The Hathigumpha inscription (near Bhubhaneshwar, Orissa) of Kharavela, the third ruler of the dynasty, gives information about the Chetis.

· Kharavela pushed his kingdom beyond the Godavari in the South.

· He was a follower of Jainism and patronized it to a great extent.

THE SATAVAHANAS OR THE ANDHRAS

· They were the successors of the Mauryans in the Deccan & the central India.

· Simuka is regarded as the founder of this dynasty. The most important king was Gautamiputra Satakarni (AD 106 – 130) who raised the power and prestige of Satavahanas to greater heights. He set up his capital at Paithan on the Godavari in Aurangabad distt.

IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF SATAVAHANAS

· Mostly issued lead coins (apart from copper and bronze).

· Acted as a bridge between North and South India.

· Satavahanas rulers called themselves Brahmans. Performed vedic rituals and worshipped gods like Krishna, Vasudeva and others. However, they also promoted Buddhism by granting land to the monks.

· The two common religious constructions were the Buddhist temple that was called 'Chaitya' & the monasteries, which was called Vihara'. The most famous Chaitya is that of Karle in W. Deccan.

· Their distt. was called Ahara', as it was in Ashoka's time. Their officials were known as 'amatyas' and 'mahamatras', as they were known in Mauryan times.

· Started the practice of granting tax free villages to brahmanas & Buddhist monks.

· The official language was Prakrit & the script was Brahmi, as in Ashokan times. One Prakrit text called Gathasattasai is attributed to a Satavahana king called Hala.

SANGAM AGE

THE PANDYAS

· Their capital was Madurai.

· First mentioned by Megasthenes, who says that their kingdom was famous for pearls and was ruled by a woman.

· The Pandya kings profited from trade with the Roman Empire and sent embassies to the Roman emperor Augustus.

THE CHOLAS

· The kingdom was called Cholamandalam or Coromondal. The chief centre was Uraiyur, a place famous for cotton trade. Capital was Kaveripattanam/Puhar.

· A Chola king named Elara conquered SriLanka & ruled it over for 50 years.

· Karikala was their famous king.

· Main source of wealth was trade in cotton cloth. They also maintained an efficient navy.

THE CHERAS

· Their capital was Vanji (also called Kerala country).

· It owed its importance to trade with the Romans. The Romans set up two regiments there to protect their interests.

· Fought against the Cholas about 150 AD.

· Greatest king was Senguttuvan, the Red Chera.

OTHER ASPECTS OF THE 3 KINGDOMS

· All the gathered information is based on Sangam literature. Sangam was a college or assembly of Tamil poets held probably under Royal Patronage (esp. Pandyas)

· Sangam age corresponds to the post-Maurya and the pre-Gupta period.

· Three Sangamas were held. The first Sangam was held at Madurai but its work has not survived. Its chairman was Agastya. The second Sangam was held at Kapatpuram. Its chairman was Tolkappiyar (author of Tolkappium). The third Sangam was held at Madurai. Its chairman was Nakkirar. It was the third Sangam from which covers the entire corpus of Sangam literature.

· Silappadikaram by Ilano Adigal (story of a married couple) and Manimekalai by Sattanar are the famous epics of this time.

· Other books are Tolkappium by Tolkappiyar, Jivikachintamani by Tirutakkdewar and Kurool (called the 'fifth veda' or 'the Bible of the Tamil Land') by Tiruvalluvar.

· The chief local god was Murugan, who was also called Sabramaniya.

· 'Parivars'— agricultural laborers who used to work in animal skin.

· Civil and military offices held by vellalas (rich peasants)

· The ruling class was called Arasar'.

· Captains of the army were given the title ENADI in formal functions.

THE GUPTA DYNASTY

· On the ruins of the Kushan empire arose a new empire, which established its way over a good part of the former dominions of both Kushans and Satavahanas. The first two kings of the dynasty were Srigupta and Ghatotkacha.

CHANDRAGUPTA - I (AD 319 - 335)

· First important king of Gupta Dynasty.

· Started the Gupta era in 319-320 AD.

· He enhanced his power & prestige by marrying Kumara Devi, princes of the Lichchavi clan of Nepal.

· He acquired the title of Maharajadhiraj.

· Struck coins in the joint names of himself, his queen and the Lachchavi nation, thereby acknowledging his marriage alliance.

SAMUDRAGUPTA (AD 335 - 375)

· The Gupta kingdom was enlarged enormously by Chandragupta's son & successor Samudragupta.

· His court poet Harisena wrote a glowing account of the military exploits of his patron. In a long inscription at the Prayag Prashasti pillar (at Allahabad), the poet enumerated the people & countries that were conquered by Samudragupta.

· Samudragupta believed in the policy of war and conquest and because of his bravery and generalship he is called the ‘Napoleon’ of India (by the historian V.A. Smith).

· Samudragupta is said to have composed numerous poems of high merit. Some of his' coins represent him playing viva. He also performed Asvamedha sacrifice.

· He assumed the titles of Kaviraj and Vikramanka.

· Vasubandhu, a celebrated Buddhist scholar was his minister.

· Though a follower of the brahmanical religion, he was tolerant of other faiths; received a missionary from Meghavarman, the ruler of Sri Lanka, seeking his permission to build a Buddhist temple at Gaya, which he granted.

CHANDRAGUPTA - II (AD 380 - 413)

· Samudragupta was succeeded by Ramgupta but Chandragupta 11 killed him and married his queen Dhruvadevi '

· He entered into matrimonial alliance with the Nagas (of upper and the Central Provinces) by marrying princess Kubernaga whose daughter Prabhavati was married to Rudrasena-11 of the Vakataka family.

· Took the title of Vikramaditya by defeating Rudrasimha HI, a Kshatrap king of Ujjain. He also took the title of Simhavikrama.

· He was the first ruler to issue silver coins. Also issued copper coins.

· The iron pillar inscription, fixed near Qutabminar in Delhi mentions a king Chandra (considered by many as Chandragupta II only).

· His court was adorned by celebrated nine gems (navratnas) including Kalidasa, Amarsimha, Varahmihir, and Dhanvantri.

· Chinese pilgrim Fahien visited India at this time.

KUMARAGUPTA-1 (AD 413-455)

· He adopted the title of Mahendraditya.

· Founded Nalanda University (a renowned university of ancient India). He was the worshipper of Lord Kartikeya (son of Lord Shiva).

· In the last years of his reign, the peace and prosperity of the empire was disturbed due to the invasion of Turko-Mongol tribe, Hunas. During the war with the Hunas, Kumaragupta died.

SKANDAGUPTA (AD 455 - 467)

· Kumaragupta-I was followed by Skandagupta. He faced Hunas effectively

· Restored Sudarshana lake.

· After his death, the great days of the Guptas were over. The empire continued but central control weakened, and local governors became feudatory kings with hereditary rights.

FALL OF GUPTA EMPIRE

· The weak successors of Skandagupta could not check the growing Huna power.

· Feudatories rose in Bihar, Bengal, _MRVallabhi, etc.

· Note:

· Mihirkula was the most famous Huna king. Hiuen Tsang mentions him as a fierce persecutor of Buddhism. He was defeated by Yashodharman (one of the feudatories of Guptas in Malwa).

CONTRIBUTIONS OF GUPTA RULERS

ADMINISTRATION

Kings were called Parameshwara /Maharajadhiraja /Paramabhattaraka.
The most important officers were Kumaramatyas.
Their military organization was feudal in character (though the emperor had the standing army).
They issued the largest number of gold coins in Ancient India, which were called Dinars. Silver coins were called rupyakas.

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

The castes were further divided into sub-castes.
Vishti (forced labour) was there
Position of women declined further. First instance of Sad took place at Eran, MR
The position of shudras improved substantiaBy.
The practice of untouchabilit^y incensed. (Especially hatred for Chandalas). Fa-hien mentions that the Chandalas lived outside the village and were distanced by the upper class.
Nalanda (a university) was established as a Buddhist monastery during the reign of Kumara Gupta.

RELIGION

Bhagavad-Gita was written during this time only. Buddhism declined.
Bhagavatism centered around worshipping Vishnu or Bhagvat.
History was presented as a cycle of 10 incarnations of Vishnu.
Idol worship became a common feature.
Vishnu temple at Deogarh (near Jhansi), a small ternite near Sanchi and a brick temple at Bhitragaon (near Kanpur) belong to the Gupta architecture.

ART

· Samudragupta is represented on his coins playing the lute (viva).

· 2 mt high bronze image of Buddha belonging to the Mathura school (The Gandhara Buddha represents mask-like coldness, while the Buddha from the Mathura school imparts a feeling of warmth and vitality.

· The Buddha sitting in his Dharma Chakra mudra belongs to Sarnath.

· Buddha images of Bamiyan belonged to Gupta period.

· Ajanta Paintings and paintings at Bagh, near Gwalior in MP, are of this time. They belong to the Buddhist art.

· Images of Vishnu, Shiva & some other Hindu Gods feature I time in this period.

LITERATURE

· Kalidas, the great Sanskrit dramatist, belonged to this period. His books are: Abhigyanashakuntalam, (considered as one of the best literary works in the world & one of the earliest Indian work to be translated into European language, the other work being the Bhagavadgita), Ritusamhara, Meghadutam, Kumarasambhavam, Malavikagnimitram, Raghuvansha, Vikramurvashi etc. Out of these, Ritusamhara, Meghadutam, Raghuvansha were epics and the rest were plays.

· Apart from Kalidas, others were Sudraka (author of Mrichchakatikam), Bharavi (Kirataduniya), and Dandin (Kavyadarshana and Dasakumaracharita). To this period belong 13 plays written by Bhasa. Most famous of these was Charudatta.

· Vishakhadatta wrote Mudrarakshasa and Devichandraguptam.

· Vishnu Sharma wrote Panchtantra and Hitopdesh.

· The Gupta period also saw the development of Sanskrit grammar based on Panini and Patanjali. This period is particularly memorable for the compilation of Amarakosha by Amarasimha.

· Ramayana & Mahabharata were almost completed by the 4th century AD.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

· Gupta period is unparalleled for its achievements in the field of mathematics and astronomy.

· Aryabhatta, the great mathematician wrote Aryabhatiya and Suryasiddhanta. In Aryabhatiya, he described the place value of the first nine nos. & the use of zero. He also calculated the value of pie and invented Algebra. In Suryasiddhanta, he proved that the earth revolves round the sun and rotates on its axis. In this way he discovered the cause of the solar and lunar eclipses and the methods for calculating the timings of their occurrence. He also said that the heavenly bodies, like the moon, were spherical and they shone by reflecting the light.

· Varahamihira wrote Panchasi- dhantika and Brihatsamhita. He said that the moon moves round the earth and the earth, together with the moon, move round the sun.

· Brahmagupta was a great mathematician. He wrote Brahma-sphutic Siddhanta in which he hinted at the Law of Gravitation.

· In the field of astronomy, Romakasidhanta was compiled.

· Vagbhatta was the most distinguished physician of the Ayurvedic system of medicine.

· Palakapya wrote Hastyagarveda, a treatise on the disease of elephants.

· Court language was Sanskrit.

· Dhanvantri — famous for Ayurveda knowledge.

OTHER DYNASTIES AND RULERS)

(7TH CENTURY - 12TH CENTURY AD) HARSHA VARDHANA (AD 606 - 647)

· Belonged to Pushyabhuti family & son of Prabhakar Vardhan.

· Originally belonged to Thaneshwar, but shifted to Kannauj (after Harsha's death Kannauj was won from Harsha's successors by the Pratiharas).

· Brought '5 Indies' under his control (Punjab, Kannauj, Bengal, Bihar and Orissa).

· Defeated by Pulakesin-11, the great Chalukya king, on the banks of Narmada in 620. Pulakesin-II bestowed the title of 'Sakalottara-paths-natha'-'the lord of the entire north'-on him.

· Chinese pilgrim, Hieun Tsang (Prince of Travelers) visited during his reign. He spent about eight years (635-643) in the dominions of Harsha and earned his friendship. Hieun Tsang has left a detailed account of a grand assembly held at Kannauj in 643 attended by representatives of Hinduism and Jainism. ‑

· Harsha used to celebrate a solemn festival at Prayag (Allahabad), at the end of every five vears.

· Harsha was a great patron of learning. He established a large monastery at Nalanda. Banabhatta, who adorned his court, wrote Harshacharita and Kadambari. Harsha himself wrote 3 plays- Priyadarshika, Ramavali and Nagananda

· After the death of Harsha in 647, the empire once again broke up into petty States..

· 1-tsing, another Chinese pilgrim visited in 670 AD.

THE VAKATAKAS

The Vakatakas came to control parts of the Deccan and Central India till the rise of the Chalukyas.
The founder of this Brahmin dynasty was Vindhyasakti.
Most important king was Pravarsen-I who performed 4 Ashwamedha yagyas.
Chandragupta-II married his daughter Prabhawati to the Vakataka king, Rudrasena-II.

CHALUKYAS OF VATAPI (BADAMI)

Founder- Pulakesin - I .
Established their kingdom at Vatapi (modern Badami, Karnataka).
Pulakesin-II was their most famous king, who was a contemporary of Harsha. He sent an embassy to the Persian king, Khusro-11, His court poet, Ravikirt4 wrote Aihole inscription. Hiuen Tsang visited his kingdom.
They were the maritime powers of their time.
Much'd the paintings and sculptures of the Ajanta and Ellora caves were completed during the Chalukyan reign. They built several magnificent temples in Aihole and other places. Aihole is called the cradle of Indian temple architecture.

Note:

There were two more Chalukya dynasties which were separate entities: They were Eastern Chalukvas of Venei and Western Chalukvas of Kalvani.
Vengi dynasty was founded by Puiakesin 11's brother, Kubja Vishnu Vardhana. The power of Eastern Chalukyas was weakened in the tenth century and they became the allies of Cholas.
The greatest ruler of Kalyani Chalukyas^•was Vikramaditya 11 Tribhuyanamaha. He was the hero of Bilhana's Vikranankadeva Charita. He introduced the Chaluk a-Vikrama era (1076 AD).

THE RASHTRAKUTAS

Founder- Dantidurga.
Originally district officers under Chalukyas of Badami.
Their king, Krishna-I is remembered for constructing the famous rock-cm Kailasha temple at Ellora. It was constructed in the Dravidian style and elaborately carved with fine sculptures.
Their king, Amoghvarsha, is compared to Vikramaditya in giving patronage to men of letters. He wrote the first Kannada poetry named Kaviraj marg and Prashnottar Mallika. He built the city of Manyakheta as his capital.
Their king, Krishna-III set up a pillar of victory and a temple at Rameshwaram.
Rashtrakutas are credited with the building of cave shrine of Elephants. It was dedicated to Shiva, whose image as Mahesh (popularly known as Trimurti), counts among the most magnificent art creations of India. The three faces represent Shiva as creator, Preserver and Destroyer.

THE GANGAS

Also called ChedaganZas of Orissa.
Their king Narsimhadeva constructed the Sun Temple at Konark.
Their king Anantvarman Ganga built the famous Jagannath temple at Puri.
Kesaris, who used to rule Orissa before Gangas built the Lingaraja temple at Bhubhaneshwar.

Jagannath Temple, Puri

THE PALLAVAS

Founder- Simhavishnu. They set up their capital at Kanchi (south of Chennai).
Narsimhavarman was their greatest king. He founded the town of Mamalapuram (Mahabalipuram) which he adorned with beautiful rock-cut Raths or Seven Pagoras. Hieun Tsang visited Kanchi during his reign.

THE CHOLAS (AD 846-1279)

Founder- Vijayalaya. Capital was Tanjore.
By site end of the ninth century, Vijayalaya's successor, Aditya I Chola, wiped out the Pallavas of Kanchi and weakened the Pandyas, thus bringing the southern Tamil country under his control. But they had to face the Rashtrakuta power. Parantaka I captured Madurai but was defeated by Rashtrakuta ruler, Krishna III at the Battle of Takkolam. Although the Rashtrakutas were later defeated.
The greatest Chola rulers were Rajaraja-I (985-1014) and his son Rajendra 1 (1014-1044).
Rajaraja founded the largest dominion in south India.
He lead a naval expedition against the Shailandra Empire (Malaya peninsula) and expanded Chola trade with China.
He annexed northern Sri Lanka and named it Mummadi-Cholamandalam. Also conquered Maldives islands.
He constructed Rajrajeshwari temple (also called Brihadeshwar Shiva temple) at Thanjavur.
His son Rajendra-I annexed the whole of SriLanka. In the North, went as far as Ganga and the dominions of the Pala king Mahipala. He took the title of `Gangaikonda' after that and founded a capital -Gan gaikonda Cholapuram. An even more remarkable exploit in his reign was the naval expedition against the revived Sri Vijaya (Sumatra) empire. The Chola navy was the strongest in the area for some time.
His son Rajadhiraja-I performed the Ashwamedha sacrifice.
Up to 1115, the extent of the Chola Empire remained undiminished under Kulottunga I, except for the loss of Ceylon, and included the entire region south of the Krishna and the Tungabhadra extending up to the Godavari on the east coast. Kulottunga III (1178-1210) was the last great Chola monarch.
Their empire was divided into 6 mandalams or provinces administered by governors. Mandalams were further divided into Valanadus, Valanadus into Nadus and Nadus into Taniyars. Ur was a type of assembly of common villages. All members of the village could become the member of ur.
Dancing figure of Shiva called Nataraja belong to this period only.
Cholas temples had massive 'Vimanas' or towers and spacious courtyards. The entrances had elaborate Gopurams (gateways).
Local Self Government was there (concept of Panchayati Raj has been borrowed from it).

THE PALAS OF BENGAL (CAPITAL-MONGHYR)

In the middle of the eighth century, the Pala dynasty came into power. Its founder was Gopala (750AD) who was elected to the throne as he had proved his valor and capability as a leader.
Then came Dharmapala who won Kannauj.
Then came Devapala who won Orissa and Assam. He defeated Pratihara king Bhoja and Rashtrakuta king Amoghvarsha.
Then came Mahipala who was attacked and defeated by Rajendra Chola.
Patrons of Buddhism. Dharampala founded Vikramsila University & revived Nalanda University.
Suleiman, an Arab merchant visited them & was impressed.
The Palas were replaced by Senas in Bengal.
Palas had trade with south east Asia.

THE PRATIHARAS OR GURJARA PRATIHARA

The foundation of one branch of Pratiharas was laid down by Harichandra, near modem Jodhpur in the middle of the sixth century AD.
The foundation of another branch was at Malwa with its capital at Ujjain, and the earliest known king of this branch was Nagabhatta . He came into prominence because of his successful resistance of the Arabs. He fought against the Rashtrakuta ruler Dantidurga.
The greatest ruler of this dynasty was Bhoja (also known as Mihir, Adivaraha – for his devotion to Vishnu). He regained Kannauj.
His successor was Mahendrapal I. His teacher was Rajashekar – a celebrated poet, dramatist and critic, & author of Karpuramanjari, Kavya Mi^ynansa, Bal Ramayan, Bhuvankosh, Harvilas, Bal Bharat, Vidhsaal, Bhrinjika, Prapanch Pandav, etc.

Notes:

3 rival powers- Pratiharas, Palas and Rashtrakutas declined almost simultaneously as there was extra pressure to maintain their armies as well as the rise of feudatories.

THE RAJPUTS

Rose to political importance in ninth & tenth centuries AD.
It is thought that they were of foreign origin that came as conquerors & settled in India.
Of all the Rajput clans, 4 clans‑

a) Pratihara or Pariharas of S.Rajasthan.

b) Chauhans of E. Rajasthan.

c) Chalukyas or Solankis of Kathiarwar.

d) Parmaras or Pawars of Malwa.

· Claimed descent from a mythical figure that arose out of a sacrificial fire pit^. near Mt. Abu. So they were called Agnikula or fire family.

· Two main clans of Rajput are

a) Suryavansha (Sun family)

b) Chandra Vansha (Moon family)

Note :

Chandelles of Bundelkhand built Kendriya Mahadeva temple at Khajuraho in 1000 AD.
Solankis of Gujarat (Siddharaja) built the Dilwara temple at Mt. Abu (West Indian style of Architecture).
Parmaras of Malwa: Greatest king was Bhoja (1010- 55), also known as Kaviraj. He wrote Ayurvedasaravasva (work on medicine) and Samaranganasutradhar (a rare work on architecture).
In this period, caste system became rigid. New sub-castes like Kayastha. Khatri emerged.

Famous literary works of this period:

§ Somadeva: Kathasaritasagar (The Ocean of the stream of stories)

§ Bilhana: Vikramadeva Charita (Biography of Chalukva king Vikramdeva-VI) Kalhana: Rajtarangini (history of Kashmir)

§ Javadeva: Gita Govinda (in Sanskrit).

§ Chachnama: Work on the history of Sind.

SOME OTHER POINTS

In Cambodia, Suryavarman – II constructed the Angkorvat temple, dedicated to Lord Vishnu. It was built on Dravidian model. It is the greatest religious monument of the world.
Shailendra Empire used to rule over Sumatra, Java and Malaya peninsula. They were Buddhists. They built the largest Buddhist stupa in the world in Borobudur.

Old Names:

§ Suvamabhumi Myanmar

§ Suvamadwipa Malaya

§ Kamboja Combodia

§ Yavadwipa Java

Note :

Arab Conquest of Sind: Sind was then ruled by Dahir. Md.-bin Qasim (of Iraq) defeated Dahir in 712 AD. This is considered to be the first invasion of India by the Arabs.

current affairs

Thursday, 13 November 2014

Ancient India

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